Germany
Germany names 3 different subjects across the 6 encyclopedias on this shelf. Each is set out below. 1 of them is described by more than one encyclopedia.
Germany or the GERMAN RE- PUBLIC
Described by 2 of the 6 encyclopedias.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
or the GERMAN RE- PUBLIC, formerly the German Empire. Prior to the revolution of 1918 Germany was a constitutional monarchy, consisting of 25 federated states and an imperial territory (Reichsland). During the latter part of 1918 it was under a provisional republican government, and in 1919 was definitely constituted a republic by the constitution which went into effect in August of that year. Prior to the World War, Germany had an area of 208,900 square miles, with a population of about 65,000,000. By the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to France, the greater part of the province of West Prussia was added to Poland, a part of eastern Silesia was likewise ceded to Poland, a portion of upper Silesia to Czecho-Slovakia, Memel and Danzig to the Allied countries, and Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium. The total area of as a result of the war the territory lost lost is about 37,000 square miles, with a population of about 10,000,000. The area of Germany in 1920 was about 171,910 square miles, with a population of about 55,000,000. Topography. The surface of Germany is much diversified with mountains in the E. and S. E. and low sandy plains intersected by rivers toward the sea, in the N. The mountains, a branch of the Alpine system, diverge in four directions from the Fichtelgebirge in the N. of Bavaria. The Erzgebirge, running N. E., forms the boundary between Saxony and Bohemia, and is continued E. by the Sudetengebirge, joining the Carpathian range near the source of the Oder. The Bohemian Forest range separates Bohemia and Bavaria, running S. E. for 150 miles, then N. E., joining the Sudetengebirge near the source of the Murch. The Swabian Alps, a low range extending S. W., form a watershed between the tributaries of the Rhine and the Danube. The Thuringian range runs N. W. from the Fichtelgebirge for about 50 miles, where it divides into the Hartz chain, running N., and another range, names, running W. to the under various Rhine, and separating it from the Weser. The rivers of Germany are numerous and noted for their scenic beauty. The Rhine, extending N. through the entire length of western Germany, is noted for the numerous old castles on its banks, as well as for its natural beauty. Of these architectural remains, probably the best known is the Castle of Rheinstein on the summit of an almost inaccessible rock near Bingen. The principal affluents of the Rhine are the Moselle and Meuse on the W., and the Lahn, Neckar, Ruhr, and Main, on the E. The Danube, Raab, with its tributaries, the Altmühl, ihl, Murch, Iller, Lech, Iser, and Inn, forms the largest waterway system. Among other principal streams are the Weser, formed by the junction of the Werra and Fulda; the Oder falling through the Great Haffe to the Baltic Sea, and the Elbe emptying into the German Ocean. There are also numerous lakes lying in the low plain of northern Germany between the Elbe and the Oder. The republic borders on two seas, the North and the Baltic. A number of islands lie off the Friesland coast, W. of the Weser, and are known as the Frisian Islands. Agriculture. The statistics of agriculture since the establishment of the republic are lacking in completeness. Prior to the war, over 90 per cent. of the area of the country was productive. There were about 65,000,000 acres of arable land, about 22,000,000 of pasture land, about 300,000 acres of vineyards, and about 36,000,000 acres in woods and forests. The area under the principal crops in acres, in 1919, was as follows: Wheat, 2,828,150; rye, 10,789,235; barley, 2,815,217; oats, 7,482,197; potatoes, 5,451,982. These areas are considerably less than those under crops prior to the war. The total yield of products in 1918 in metric tons (1 metric ton equals 2,204 pounds) was as follows: Wheat, 2,169,- 169; rye, 6,100,144; barley, 1,910,363; oats, 4,453,688; potatoes, 21,449,186; beets, 16,877,520. The product is less than 50 per cent. that of 1912. The crop conditions in the autumn of 1919 were less satisfactory than had been expected. The forest industry in Germany is very important. In normal peace times there were about 26,000,000 cubic yards of lumber produced, and about 23,000,000 cubic yards of firewood. Mineral Production. - The chief mineral producing portion of Germany is Prussia, where the chief mining districts are Westphalia, Rhenish Prussia, and Silesia for coal and iron; the Hartz for silver and copper; and Silesia for zinc. There are coal, iron, and silver mines in Saxony. Through the Treaty of Peace, Germany lost the great Sarre coal basin, the product of which is to go to France for 15 years. The industries of Germany depend largely upon the coal production, and the shortage of fuel in 1919-1920 proved a very serious factor in the re-establishment of industrial operations. In spite of careful rationing, factories were obliged to cut down. Railroad and gas works reserves were reduced, and dwellings were unheated. In addition to the coal required for domestic use, Germany was obliged to furnish to France a large amount monthly in return for the destruction of the coal mines in northern France. The coal production in Germany for August, 1920, the best month following this agreement, was 11,637,000 tons, or 730,000 tons less than before the war. There were deducted about 2,700,000 tons, leaving a total of about 9,000,000 tons to be applied to domestic uses. The use of lignite, of which there are large deposits in Germany, was greatly developed, and there are indications that the production of this coal would more than equal the reduced supply available. Experiments were carried on in 1920- 1921 for the production of liquid coal, and these were so successful that there was every indication that a method would be discovered to reduce coal to a liquid form. The effect of the lack of fuel to industry is shown by the falling off in the pig-iron production which in July, 1920, was 526,000 tons, and in October, 1920, 490,000 tons. In general, the coal supplied to zinc, copper, and lead mines was scarcely more than enough to keep the mines in operation. Iron is produced chiefly in Prussia, Bavaria, and Saxony. Steel is made in Rhenish Prussia. The total production of pig iron in 1918 was 11,754,542 tons, compared with 19,291,920 tons in 1914. Detailed figures of production in other metals were not available in 1921. Production and Industry. The industrial condition of Germany is indicated to a large extent in the previous paragraphs on agriculture and mineral production. While manufacturing had revived to a large extent from the war conditions, the financial and economic position of the country made it almost impossible to arrive at even an approximate indication of the real industrial conditions. Many of the large manufacturing corporations showed satisfactory dividends on paper, but the depreciation of the mark made impossible an accurate determination of just what profits were resulting from manufacture. All items of cost had greatly increased in 1920 over pre-war cost; labor about three times, coal much higher, and many other supplies and requirements ran as much as ten times the pre-war cost. Commerce. Germany has since 1879 pursued a protectionist policy in her commercial relations. Nearly half of the imports are subject to duty and the duties levied in 1919 amounted to over 20 per cent. of the value of imports subject to duty. There was considerable demand for agricultural implements, especially to Poland, but the factories, on account of their diminished power of production, were unable to fill more than 50 per cent. of the orders. Foreign trade, except with the countries bordering on Germany, was practically at a standstill. During the first 10½ months since the signing of the armistice, the United Kingdom exported to Germany goods to the value of of over $80,000,000, and nd received from Germany goods valued at $1,087,000. There were very large exports to Germany of American pork, beef, and other food products, in October and November, 1919. These products, with cotton and leaf tobacco, constituted the bulk of the United States exports to Germany. The imports from the United States during the fiscal year 1920 amounted to $202,176,- 079, while the exports to the United States were valued at $45,085,975. Communications. The total length of railway lines in Germany is about 39,000 miles. On April 1, 1920, all the various German state lines were transferred to the central government. About 36,000 miles are state lines. The canal system is of great importance. The Kaiser Wilhelm or Kiel Canal connects the North Sea with the Baltic, and is over 60 miles long. The Hohenzollern Canal between Berlin and Hohensaaten, was opened in 1914. Another important canal is the Elbe-Trave Canal. The post and telegraph service are in the hands of the central government. There are over 150,000 miles of telegraph line and over 80,000 miles of telephone line. Finances. In 1919 the revenue and expenditure were estimated to balance at £2,832,700,000. The revenue in 1918 was £3,824,062,100, and the expenditure was £3,950,502,500. The budget estimates for 1920-1921 are, for revenues 25,300,000,- 000 marks, and for expenditure 24,200,- 000,000 marks. The total funded debt in 1919 was 93,719,974,200 marks. On October 1, 1919, the total loan credits to the German Government amounted to 90,- 400,000,000 marks. On April 1, 1920, the public debt was increased to 204,- 000,000,000 marks. The German war debt is 517,700,000,000 marks. The annual interest on this amounts to about 7,900,000,000 marks. Army. The total mobilized strength of the army on the date of the armistice of November 11, 1918, was approxi- This force was mately 6,000,000 men. demobilized and toward the end of January, 1919, the president of the republic was authorized to raise a provisional national defense army, pending the creation of a permanent defense force. On August 1, 1919, this force numbered 500,000 men. The Treaty of Versailles provided for a total number of effectives in the German army of not more than 200,000, on April 10, 1919. This was to be gradually reduced to 100,000 men. Universal compulsory service was abolished, as were the German General Staff and all similar organizations. The reduction of the defense force began in August, 1919. During this year, however, a number of organizations came into existence on a pretext that they were required to maintain public order. led Public Safety Police, the This included Emergency Volunteers, and the Civic Guards. In all, they numbered about 500,000 men. The raising of these forces was contrary to the Treaty of Versailles, and after April 10, 1920, only civil guards and police forces, as existed in 1913, were permitted. Navy. The German navy ceased to exist as a fighting force under the terms of the treaty of peace. The sinking of the ships at Scapa Flow on June 21, 1919, practically put an end to what had been the German High Fleet. Ten battleships, five battle cruisers, and five light cruisers were sunk. Three light cruisers were beached, and 30 destroyers were sunk and 18 were beached. The remaining vessels of the fleet were surrendered to the Allies. The Treaty of Peace permits the German government to maintain a navy on a volunteer basis. The fleet may consist of six battleships, six battle cruisers, 12 destroyers, but no submarines are to be built. The total personnel must not exceed 15,000. Education. Education is compulsory throughout the country. There are about 65,000 public elementary schools, with about 10,500,000 pupils. There are also about 500 private schools. Above the elementary schools rank the middle schools of the towns. Children of the working classes may continue their education at continuation schools. The gymnasiums are fully equipped classical schools, preparing pupils in a nine-year course for the university and the professions. There are also higher schools. There are eleven technical high schools, agricultural high schools, and other professional schools. There are in Germany 23 universities. Colonies. Germany lost all her colonies, either by conquest or as a result of the conditions of the Treaty of Peace. These include Togoland, Kamerun, German Southwest Africa, German East Africa, New Guinea, the Caroline Isthe Marshall Islands, the Ladrone lands, nds, Islands, the German Samoan Islands, and Kiau-chau-China. These colonies had a total area of 1,139,877 square miles and a population of 12,968,329. Government. On Nov. 9, 1918, the German Emperor abdicated and Germany became a republic from that date. For an account of the formation of the republic see HISTORY below. The constitution was adopted on July 31, 1919, by the National Assembly at Weimar and was promulgated on August 13, 1919. The constitution provides for a central and state legislature, the central authority to have power over foreign relations, defense, customs, duty, taxation, and ad service, makes provision for an railroad imperial council, to be formed of the representatives of the component states, and provides for suffrage. All bills, before they are introduced into the Reichstag require the assent of the Reichsrat or the imperial council. The principle of the referendum is provided for in the constitution. Members of the Reichstag are elected by universal, equal, direct, and secret votes. The Reichstag is elected The president of the for four years. republic is elected by the entire German people for a period of seven years. Declarations of war and peace are made by the central government. The Reichsrat consists of 63 members, and the Reichstag, in 1920, of 423 members. The National Assembly, on February 11, 1918, elected Friedrich Ebert president of the republic. History. What is now the German republic was originally divided among a number of independent race-the Alemanni, Franks, Saxons, Slavs, Avari, Charlemagne conquered and others. these various tribes, and incorporated them in his vast empire, and the treaty of Verdun, signed in 843 by the sons of Louis-le-Debonnaire, gave birth to the Kingdom of Germany. On the extinction of the Carlovingian family, the monarchy became elective, and the crown was conferred, in 911 on Conrad I., Duke of Franconia. The Saxons renewed, in the person of Otto the Great, the empire of Charlemagne, giving it the name "The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation." The Saxon dynasty y added to the empire Lotharingia, Bohemia, and Italy; and to this family succeeded that of Franconia, which reigned from 1024 to 1137, and added the Kingdom of Arles to the possessions of the empire. The house of Suabia next succeeded, and, of this line, Conrad III., and Frederick Barbarossa, from 1138 to 1190, raised the imperial power to its utmost height. On Conrad IV.'s death commenced the long interregnum from 1254 to 1273, which ended in delivering Germany from anarchy by Rudolph of Hapsburg. The Golden Bull or charter was granted to the feudatories and electors by Charles IV. in 1356, and in 1438 Albert of Hapsburg was elected emperor and became the head of the present house of Austria. Under Ferdinand II., t II., the Thirty Years' War began in 1618, resulting in the confirmation of the Lutheran religion. The reigns of Leopold I. and Charles VI. were occupied with long wars with Louis XIV. and XV. of France; and the death of Charles, in 1740, gave rise to the War of the Austrian Succession, which secured the throne to the husband of Maria Theresa, Charles' daughter, and thus placed on the throne a member of the House of Lorraine, Francis I. Napoleon I., who since 1799 had directed the foreign policy of the French nation, not satisfied with this reduction of the power of the empire, now conceived the idea of effecting its entire dissolution. The treaty of Pressburg, in 1805, which followed the battle of Austerlitz, gave him the means of carrying this project into effect, by forming a confederation of German princes, called the Confederation of the Rhine, who, uniting into a corporate body, in 1807 placed themselves under the protectorate of the French emperor. The wars which followed gave Napoleon the power of altering the territorial distribution of Germany at pleasure. He accordingly created for his brother Jerome the new kingdom of Westphalia, and for his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, the grand-duchy of Berg, and raised those members of the Rhenish confederation who supported his cause to new dignities and an openly recognized independence of sovereigns. Under the circumstances, the emperor, Francis II., by a solemn act, renounced the style and title of emperor of Germany, Aug. 6, 1809. The termination of the war with Russia, called in Germany the Liberation War, restored Germany to its geographical and political position in Europe, but not as an empire acknowledging one supreme head. A confederation of 35 independent sovereigns and 4 free cities replaced the elective monarchy, that fell under its own decrepitude. A national government was recognized in 1848, and Archduke John, of Austria, Austria, was elected Vicar, but he frustrated all energetic moves on the part of the Parliament. In 1850 Austria and Prussia combined to restore the Diet, but in 1866, the Bund was dissolved and war broke out between these states. By the treaty of Prague, Aug. 20, 1866, Austria was excluded from participation in the new organization of German states, and was forced to pay 40,000,000 thalers for the expense of the war. In 1870 the Franco- German War broke out between France and Prussia, resulting in the defeat of France, the cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany, and the consolidation of all the German states into the German Empire. On Jan. 18, 1871, William, King of Prussia, was proclaimed first Emperor of Germany, at Versailles. An offensive and defensive alliance was formed between Austria and Germany in 1879, and later Italy entered, forming the Triple Alliance. During the difficulties between the European powers with the United States and China in 1900-1901, Germany bore a conspicuous part, and Field-Marshal Count von Waldersee was appointed commander-inchief of the international military forces. In the first years of the twentieth century, the keynote of the German foreign policy was a growing hostility toward Great Britain, which had for its causes commercial rivalry and resentment at the conduct of the Emperor at the outbreak of the South African War. Germany was entirely neutral d during the Russo-Japanese War, War, but took advantage of the Russian defeat to antagonize France and Russia by attempting interference with the policy of France in Morocco. In the early months of 1905 war with France seemed imminent, but the Anglo- French agreement held fast and Germany was obliged to yield at the conference held at Algeciras, in 1906. The annexation by Austria of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, threatened war against Austria by Serbia and Russia, but the announcement that Russia would support Austria, prevented hostilites and enabled Austria to maintain her action. Measures providing for electoral reform were passed in 1910. By a treaty made in 1911, Russia and Germany agreed as to their relative rights in the Near East. Germany's influence was to continue along the Bagdad Railway, while Russia was given supremacy in north Persia and Kurdestan. In this year there was also a second controversy with France over the question of Mor- England supported France, and occo. Germany was obliged to acknowledge the supremacy of French claims. In return, France ceded to Germany 112 square miles in the French Congo. Rapid increase in the war armament in the years preceding the World War made it necessary to levy special taxes on property value and incomes. The military system received severe criticism in 1913, owing to disturbances at Zabern, in which German officers were found to have acted with great brutality toward the people. The outbreak of the World War found Germany well prepared from a military standpoint. Indeed, there was abundant evidence to show that for 30 years previous economic and military preparations had been made for a great European war, and that only the opportunity was lacking. This was furnished by the assassination of the Crown Prince Ferdinand, on June 24, 1914. The details of the part played by Germany in the World War are told in the article of that title. The nation was well united at the outbreak of the war, and the first war loan of 4,505,000,000 marks was easily raised. All political parties supported the war. With the beginning of 1915 the question of regulating the food supply became important, and the food question continued throughout the years following to be the most acute of the domestic problems of the country. Political opposition to the war developed in 1916, when a split was brought about in th the ranks of the Social Democratic party. The opposition was led by Carl Liebknecht, who on January 13, 1916, was expelled from membership in the party. Liebknecht was later arrested and imprisoned. The question of possible terms of peace continued throughout 1916. The Socialists opposed the annexation of any territory, while the Supreme War party insisted upon annexation of all conquered territory. At the beginning of 1917 war appropriations had reached the total of 40,000,000,000 marks. There were during this year a number of important cabinet changes, the most important of these being in the navy department, where Grand Admiral von Tirpitz, who had inaugurated and ardently supported the submarine campaign, was succeeded by Admiral von Capelle. Political conditions during 1917 rapidly grew more acute. The position of the Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, became continually more difficult. The condition was rendered more complicated by the revolution in Russia, which raised a demand for electoral reforms in Germany. These were promised by the Emperor and by the Chancellor. The op- Vol. IV-Cyc-T position to the conduct of the war grew serious and was led by Mathias Erzberger. He attacked the government for antagonizing the United States, and for its erroneous predictions in regard to the successful conclusion of the war. A demand for peace continued to grow. Bethmann-Hollweg resigned on July 14, 1917, and was succeeded by Dr. George Michaelis, who in turn was succeeded on November 1, 1917, by Count George von Hertling. There was great dissatisfaction in the military party over the terms of peace with Russia. The reactionary, or military element, was strong enough to defeat the reform measures undertaken by the government. They also strongly insisted upon a dictated peace, involving the annexation of large parts of Belgium and France, and the payment to Germany of a vast indemnity. This party was strongly opposed by the Socialists, and there were other indications that the people were becoming restless. This unrest was increased by the uncompromising attitude taken by the Chancellor toward conciliatory speeches made by President Wilson and Lloyd George. In March, 1918, there was published the so-called Lichnowsky memorandum which revealed the unsuccessful attempts of the former German ambassador at London to prevent war. The failure of the final German drive in spring of 1918 brought about a reversal of the government's position in regard to peace terms. The Chancellor in July declared that Germany did not intend to hold Belgium permanently. There were also many signs of dissension between the separate German states and between Germany and Austria. In September separate peace overtures were made with Belgium. Von Hertling resigned on September 29, 1918, and Prince Max von Baden became Imperial Chancellor. On October 5, he appealed to the President of the United States, asking him to take steps to bring about peace, and on October 21, sent another note to President Wilson describing the changes that had been made in the German Government and claiming that the Government was now in comp complete accord with the principle of representation of the people. The note also stated that orders had been issued to all German submarines to cease the torpedoing of passenger ships. President Wilson replied on October 23, expressing his willingness to consider the question of an armistice. The discussion was carried on in the German Reichstag during the weeks following. In the meantime, an armistice had been signed between Austria and Italy, and political unrest in Germany was becoming very intense. On November 5, the German Government received the Allied answer to the request of an armistice, and after negotiations between the Allied and German military officers, an armistice was finally signed on November 11, 1918. The signing of the armistice could not prevent the spread of revolution in Germany. Actual revolution was begun by the revolt of the German High Sea Fleet at Kiel, and was followed by uprisings in various cities throughout the Empire. On November 9, 1918, the German Emperor decided to abdicate. The final abdication was not published, however, until the end of the month, following the Emperor's flight into Holland. The revolution now swept with great swiftness. The King of Bavaria was forced from his thrown and a Socialist journalist, Kurt Eisner, was placed at the head of the newly formed republic. In quick succession followed revolution in Württemberg, Saxony, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, and Baden. The reactionary reactionary party made an attempt at resistance throughout throughout the country, but finally the more moderate wing of the Socialists, headed by Ebert, Landsberg, and Scheidemann, assumed the supreme power. Ebert was temporarily appointed Imperial Chancellor. This provisional government was faced by many difficult problems. The extreme radical Socialists, known as the Spartacan group, put themselves in direct opposition. This party was headed by Dr. Liebknecht, who issued a call to arms for a social revolution. There was a general demand for an all-German National Assembly, and this was finally accomplished on November 25. It was composed of 17 delegates, representing 21 German states, and its object was to formulate the rules for the coming national convention. During the last November and early December days of 1918, political conditions continued more intense. Strikes occurred in many industrial centers. Opposition to the Ebert government was strong in Bavaria and other south German states. The Spartacan party continued in hostile opposition. People's councils and soldiers' and workmen's councils sprang up throughout the country. On Dec. 16, 1918, the central council of delegates from soldiers' and workmen's councils met in Berlin for the purpose of debating the place of national assembly. Liebknecht took this opportunity to incite the people to revolt. The radical Socialists insisted that Germany should be formed into one single republic, that all power should be given to the soldiers' and workmen's councils, and that the supreme executive power should be exercised by the executive council. It was finally decided by the Congress that elections should be held to appoint a National assembly on January 19, 1919. The Spartacan party received assistance from Russia and was also encouraged by the continued spread of strikes throughout the country. The Spartacans finally broke out in actual however, revolt in January. It was, quickly suppressed. On January 16 Carl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, the two most prominent leaders of the Spartacans, were arrested and shortly afterward shot by their guards in their place of detention. This broke the opposition of the radical Socialists. Elections were held for members of the National Assembly on January 19, 1919, and the Assembly convened at Weimar on February 6. On February 21, 1919, there was a serious outbreak at Munich. Kurt Eisner, the Prime Minister, was killed. There were similar outbreaks throughout the country. Eisner had been at the head of a sothe called Soviet government, and collapse of this at his his death removed the last stronghold of Bolshevism in Germany, although there continued to be uprisings of the Spartacans from time to time. By the time of the meeting of the Peace Conference, however, comparative peace reigned throughout Germany. The terms of the Peace Treaty aroused a storm of protest throughout Germany. The German delegates left the conference to consult with the German Government. An extension of time was granted for the signing of the treaty, and finally on June 23, 1919, the National Assembly accepted, without conditions, the reservations of the Allied terms. The Peace Treaty was ratified by the German National Assembly on July 9, 1919. The new constitution was formally adopted by the Assembly on July 31, 1919. The constitution consists of 181 articles. It provides for the composition and function of the National government; for the regulation of the National government and the various State governments; for the election and function of the Reichstag, of the National President, of the Chancellor, of the National ministers, of the National Council, and of the duties of the various National government departments. This provides also for the administration of justice, the fundamental rights and duties of the citizens; for the regulation of n marriage, education, religion, and economic life; of the the temporary varying of existing laws and regulations; for the repeal of the constitution of the former German Empire; and for the continuation of German laws and regulations in so far as they do not contradict the new constitution. The people accepted the new constitution with comparative calmness. There continued to be, however, internal dissensions and industrial troubles. On January 13, 1920, a mob of 50,000 50,000 persons gathered in front of the Reichstag building, and overwhelmed the military guard. The police were obliged to use bombs and machine guns to suppress the riot, and over 40 persons were killed. A counter-revolution against President Ebert's government, inspired by Pan- Germans, suddenly broke out on March 13. Wolfgang Kapp proclaimed himself chancellor. President Ebert fled to Stuttgart, but immediately proclaimed a general strike of workmen, which spread throughout the country, stopping all transportation and cutting off food and water for the cities. Dr. K Dr. Kapp resigned on March 17, and Gustav Noske Noske, Minister of Defense, assumed charge of the government. President Ebert returned on March 21. The radical elements among the workmen began a second revolution in the industrial centers. They captured Essen and other towns and demanded the resignation of Noske. The Ebert government agreed to this and the rioting ceased. Elections were held on June 6, 1920, for the first Reichstag under the republican government. The majority Socialists won 112 seats, the Independents 81, the Centrists 67,' and the German Nationalists 65. The Reichs tag, on July 31, passed a bill abolishing compulsory military service. The government ordered gene general disarmament of the civilian population and this was carried on throughout the remainder of the year. The Allied Powers found considerable difficulty in enforcing the terms of the Treaty of Peace. The question of reparations was the most difficult. Germany insisted on being told the exact amount which would be exacted and the terms upon which it was to be paid. The Allied governments, however, refused until February, 1921, to give explicit terms. It was then announced that the sum of the indemnity would be practically 59 billion dollars, to be paid during an indefinite period. A meet meeting was held in London in March, 1921, to consider the method of payment and German delegates were invited to be present. They protested against this sum levied upon Germany, and proposed instead an indemnity of about $7,000,000,000. This proposal was rejected by the Allies and the German delegates withdrew. Following this, the Allied forces, composed chiefly of French troops, marched into Germany, taking possession of the cities of Düsseldorf, Duisburg, and Ruhrort. This occupation was accomplished without any hostility on the part of the inhabitants of these cities. The German Emperor, having fled into Holland, for several years resided at the Castle of Amerongen, under the protection of the Dutch Government. He afterward purchased an estate at Doorn. The Crown Prince had fled to the island of Wieringen, where he remained a practical exile, although he was permitted from time to time to visit his father and mother. See WORLD WAR; PEACE TREATY, and the articles on the various German states.
An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1920)
For early German magic, see Teutons . Magic as formulated and believed in by the Germans in the Middle Ages , bears, along with traces of its unmistakable derivation from the ancient Teutonic religion, the impress of the influence wrought by the natural characteristics of the country upon the mind of its inhabitants Deep forests, gloomy mountains, limitless morass caverned rocks, mysterious springs, all these helped to shape the weird and terrible imagination which may be traced in Teutonic mythology, and later in the darker and more repulsive aspects of magic and witchcraft, which first arose in Germany, and there obtained ready credence. As the clash and strife of Teuton and Roman, of Christian and Heathen have left indelible records in folk-lore and history, so we may find them as surely in the magical belief of the Middle Ages. The earlier monkish legends are replete with accounts of magic and sorcery, indicating plainly the process by which the ancient deities had become evil and degraded upon the introduction of the newer religion. Miracles are recounted, where these evil ones are robbed of all power at the name of Christ, or before some blessed relic, then chained and prisoned beneath mountain, river and sea in eternal darkness, whilst it was told how misfortune and death were the unvarying rewards for those who still might follow the outcast gods. Again, the sites and periods of the great religious festivals of the Teutons are perpetuated in those said to be the place and time of the Witches' Sabbath and other mysterious meetings and conclaves. Mountains especially retained this character-as the Venusberg, the Horselberg, and Blocksberg, now become the Devil 's realm and abode of the damned. Chapels and cathedrals were full of relics, whose chief virtue was to exorcise the spirits of evil, while the bells must be blessed, as ordained by the Council of Cologne, in order that "demons might be affrighted by their sound, calling Christians to prayers; and when they Germany fled, the persons of the faithful would be secure; that the destruction of lightnings and whirlwinds would be averted, and the spirits of the storm defeated." Storms were always held to be the work of the Devil, or the conjuration of his followers. In their fury might be heard the trampling of his infernal train above the tossing forests or holy spires, and here is seen the transformation Odin and his hosts had undergone. Another instance of this is found when the Valkyries, the Choosers of the Slain , riding to places of battle, have become the mediæval witches riding astride broom-sticks, on their missions of evil. Castles of flames, where the Devil holds wild revel; conclaves of corpses revivified by evil knowledge; unearthly growths, vitalized by hanged men's souls, springing to life beneath gallows and gibbets; little men of the hills, malicious spirits, with their caps of mist and cloaks of invisibility; in these may be seen the meeting of the Heathen and Christian stories, and the origins of that terrible belief in magic, and its train of terror and death, which is one of the darkest mysteries of the Middle Ages. Witchcraft was at first derided as a delusion by men of sense and education, and belief in it was actually forbidden by some of the earlier councils. It was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that it attained prominence, helped greatly thereto by the fact that magic, sorcery and witchcraft had now become a crime in the eyes of the Church -a crime punishable by confiscation and death. It may be truly said that the Holy Fathers and Inquisitors first systematised and formulated Black Magic . Under such authority, belief in it flourished, filling the people with either an abject fear or unholy curiosity. The motives for laying the charge of sorcery and witchcraft at a person's door were, of course, many besides that of care for the soul; for personal feuds, political enmities, religious differences and treasury needs found in this an unfailing and sure means of achieving their infamous ends. However this might be, the charges were hurled at high and low, and death thereby reaped a plentiful harvest. The famous Council of Constance began the years of terror with its proscription of the doctrines of Wyclif and the burning of John Huss and Jerome of Prague. At this time, too, a work was published by one of the Inquisitors, called the Formicarium, a comprehensive list of the sins against religion and in the fifth volume an exhaustive account was given of that of sorcery. The list of crimes accomplished by witches is detailed, such as second sight, ability to read secrets and foretell events; power to cause diseases, death by lightning and destructive storms; to transform themselves into beasts and birds; to bring about illicit love, barrenness of living beings and crops; their emnity against children and practice of devouring them. Papal bulls appeared for the appointment of Inquisitors, who must not be interfered with by the civil authorities, and the Emperor and reigning princes took such under their protection. The persecutions rose to a ferocity unparallelled in other countries, till the following century, and hundreds were burned in the space of a few years. Two Inquisitors of this time, Jacob Sprenger, and Henricus Institor, compiled the famous Malleus Maleficarum, a complete system of witchcraft, also a perfect method of proving the innocent capable and guilty of any and every crime. Yet it was meant partly as an apology-a pointing out of the necessity for the extermination of such a horde of evil-doers. At this time, too, appeared the bull of Pope Innocent VIII., another comprehensive method and process for trials and tortures. These persecutions were intermittent throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, breaking out again with renewed vigour in the seventeenth century. It was stimulated in this by the increasing strife between Catholics and Protestants and the condition of the country, devastated by wars, plague and famine, was an ever-ready and fruitful source of charges that might be brought against sorcery. Two cities, Bamberg and Würzburg attained an unenviable fame for sanguinary trials and number of victims. In the first-named city, Prince-Bishop George II., and his suffragan, Frederic Forner, prosecuted the holy inquisition with such energy that between the years 1625 and 1630 nine hundred trials took place, six hundred people being burned. Confessions of whatever the holy fathers wished, were wrung from the victims under extreme and merciless torture. Rich and poor, learned and ignorant, were gathered into the toils, the number often being so great that names were never taken and written down, the prisoners being cited as No. 1, 2, 3, and so on. At Würzburg, Lutheranism was gaining ground, and here again the charge of sorcery was brought against its followers. The bishop, Philip Adolph, who came to the see in 1623, did not dare to openly prosecute them, so took this means of punishing those unfaithful to the Church. In Hauber's Bibliotheca Magica may be found a list of twenty-nine burnings, covering a short period prior to 1629. Each burning consisted of several victims, the numbers ranging from two up to ten or more. It is a strange procession we see here, winding their way to death through the flames and bitter smoke, a procession pathetic and terrible. Old men and women, little girls and boys and infants, all emissaries of the Evil One; noble ladies and washerwomen; vicars, canons, singers and minstrels; Bannach, a senator, "the fattest citizen in Würzburg"; a very rich man, a keeper of the pot-house, the bishop's own nephew and page, "the most beautiful girl in Würzburg," a huckster, a blind girl, living beings beside the decapitated dead-the procession is endless as the conditions were various. Strangely, it was at Würzburg, in 1749, that the last trial for witchcraft took place, that of Maria Renata, of the Convent of Unterzell. She was condemned on all the old charges, of consorting with the Devil, bewitchments and other infernal practices, and burned there in the month of June, the last victim of cruel superstition. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, disbelief in the truth of witchcraft and criticism of the wholesale burnings began to be heard, though earlier than this, some had dared to lift their voices against the injustice and ignorance of it all. Cornelius Saos, a priest in Mainz, had, before 1593, stated his doubt of the whole proceedings, but suffered for his temerity. Johannes Wier, physician to the Duke of Cleves, Thomas Erast, another physician, Adam Tanner, a Bavarian Jesuit, and last, but not least, Frederick Spree, also a Jesuit, who, more than all helped to end the reign of terror and superstition. Alchemy, the forerunner of modern chemistry, belonged in those days to the realm of magic, and was therefore Satanic in its derivation, and its followers liable to the charge of sorcery and the penalty of death. In this fraternity we find emperors and princes, often devoted to the study themselves, or taking into their service well-known practisers of the art, as when Joachim I. had Johannes Trithemius as teacher of astrology and "defender of magic," and the Emperor Rudolph employing Michael Maier as his physician. Germany supplies a long roll of names famous for their discoveries made in the name of magic, men who by their search for knowledge and truth laid themselves open to much terrible suspicion. Here we find Paracelsus, that inexplicable figure who in his search for the Elixir of Life discovered laudanum, perhaps in some magical distillation of black poppies at midnight hour; the great Cornelius Agrippa; Basil Valentine, prior and chemist; Henry Germany Kühnrath, physician and philosopher, and a train of students, all tirelessly searching for the elusive mysteries of life, the innermost secrets of nature. These men were awesome figures to the ignorant mind. Popular imagination was ever busy weaving strange tales about their doings, such as infernal dealings and pacts with the Devil. Such knowledge as the alchemists gained could only be acquired by infernal means, and the soul of the magician was often the price promised and inexorably demanded by the Evil One. These myths and imaginings centred themselves about one magician especially, and in the Faust legend we may find embalmed the general attitude and belief of the Middle Ages towards learning and any attempt to extend the realm of knowledge. The Alchemists were also mystics as their writings abundantly testify, but most notable of all in this department of occultism was Jacob Böhme, the son of peasants, the inspired shoemaker. During the Thirty Years' War many wild preachers, seers and fanatics appeared, exhorting and prophesying. No doubt the condition of the country contributed towards producing these states of hallucination and hysteria, and in contrast to the terror, misfortune and sorrow on all sides we have accounts of ecstatics absorbed in supernatural visions. Anna Fleischer of Freiburg was such an one, as was Christiana Poniatowitzsch, who journeying throughout Bohemia and Germany related her visions and prophesied. At the end of the seventeenth century the old tenets of magic were undergoing a gradual change. Alchemy began to separate itself from them, and became merged in the science of chemistry. The residue of the magical beliefs formed their protagonists in members of all kinds of secret societies, many of which were founded on those of the Middle Ages. Freemasonry-whose beginnings are attributed by some to a certain guild of masons banded together for the building of Strasburg Cathedral, but by other authorities to Rosicrucianism-formed the basis and pattern for many other secret societies. In the eighteenth century these flourished exceedingly. Occultism became rampant. We hear of Frederick William working with Steinert in a house specially built for evocations; of Schroepfer, proprietor of a café with his magic punch and circles for raising the spirits of the dead; of Lavater with two spirits at his command; of the Mopses, a society whose rites of initiation were those of the Templars and Witches' Sabbath in a mild and civilized form; and of Carl Sand, the mystical fanatic who killed Kotzebue. The Illuminati, whose teachings, spreading to France, did so much towards bringing about the many violent changes there, were banded together as a society by Adam Weishaupt and fostered by Baron von Knigge, a student of occultism. The object of this society is said to have originally been that of circumventing the Jesuits, but in its development it absorbed mysticism and supernaturalism, finally becoming political and revolutionary as it applied its philosophies to civil and religious life. Though it was disbanded and broken up in 1784 its influence was incalculable and widespread in its effects for long afterwards. Many other names occur, coming under the category of mysticism: Jüng Stilling, seer, prophet and healer; Anton Mesmer, the discoverer and apostle of animal magnetism; the Marquis de Puységur, magnetist and spiritualist; Madame von Krudener, preacher of peace and clemency to monarchs and princes; Zschokke the mystical seer, and Dr. Justinus Kerner, believer in magnetism and historian of those two famous cases of possession and mediumship, the "Maid of Orlach" and the "Seeress of Prevorst." Early in the nineteenth century occurred the remarkable cures said to be affected by Prince Hohenlohe, a dignitary of the Church. He was led to believe in the power of healing through the influence of a peasant named Martin Michel. Most of these cures took place at Würzburg, the scenes of former sanguinary witch-burnings, and it is said that upwards of four hundred people, deaf, dumb, blind and paralytic were cured by the power of fervent prayer. About this time also occurred the famous case of "stigmata" in the person of the ecstatic, Katherine Emerick, the nun of Dülmen. The remarkable features were the appearance of a bloody cross encircling the head; marks of wounds in hands, feet and side, and crosses on the breast, with frequent bleedings therefrom. This persisted for many years and the case is mentioned by several notable men of the time. 66 دو In nineteenth century Occultism we find, as in the earlier periods, stories of hauntings and doings of mischievous sprites existing beside learned disquisitions by educated men; as that on the fourth dimension in space by Zöllner in his Transcendental Physics, and another on the luminous emanations from material objects in Baron von Reichenbach's treatise on the Od or Odylic Force; thus betraying an unmistakeable likeness to its precursor, the magic of the Middle Ages. Spiritualism. The movement of modern spiritualism, which left such a deep impress on America, France and England, affected Germany in a much less degree. But it would be indeed surprising if the country which gave so great attention to magnetism, wherein somnambules and clairvoyants were so plentiful, the country of seers and mystics, did not interest itself in the wide-spread phenomena of spiritualism. And investigators there were in Germany, though we have no record of any in the period immediately following the Rochester Rappings. Fichte declared for the facts of spiritualism; Hartmann, also, the author of the Philosophy of the Unconscious, desired to give the phenomena a definite place in philosophy. Carl du Prel, in his Philosophy of Mysticism, points to spiritualistic manifestations as evidence of a subconscious region in the human mind. Du Prel also founded a monthly magazine, The Sphinx, devoted to the interests of spiritualism, and Aksakoff, the well-known Russian spiritualist, published the results of his researches in Germany, and in the German language, because he was not permitted to publish them in Russian. Another philosophic exponent of the spiritualistic doctrine was Baron Hellenbach, who founded on its tenets a distinct hypothesis of his ownnamely, that no change of world, or "sphere," occurs at birth or death, but merely a change in the mode of perception. So much for the philosophical attitude towards the phenomena. The popular view-point was doubtless more influenced by the performances of the mediums who from time to time found their way to Germany. The most important of these was Henry Slade, who sought refuge in that country from his English persecutors. His remarkable manifestations in Germany, under the observation of Zöllner the astronomer, left nothing to be desired from a spiritualistic point of view.
Germany 1922. Continued failure to reach any satisfactory settlement of
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
1922. Continued failure to reach any satisfactory settlement of the reparations problem retarded Germany's internal recovery and led to increasing external pressure, culminating in January, 1923, in France's occupation of the Ruhr industrial district. In March, 1922, the Reparation Commission fixed the total of Germany's reparations for the year at 720,000,000 gold gold marks in cash and 1,450,000,000 marks in kind. Such a payment was declared by Germany to be impossible , but the terms were accepted on May 28th, in time to prevent a threatened extension of French occupation of the Rhineland districts. The terms included heavy increases in taxation, halting of the issues of paper money, and the general supervision of such financial measures by a Guarantees Committee of the Reparation Commission. Germany's acceptance of the reparation terms was based on the hope of obtaining a foreign loan through the international committee of bankers which met in Paris, June, 1922; but this hope was disappointed, and the bankers' decision was followed by Germany's declaration of her inability to make further payments. A suspension was granted by the Reparation Commission on all cash payments for the remainder of 1922, and a general moratorium was discussed by the Allied premiers in a number of conferences , which, however, came to nothing . France demanded guarantees, to be secured by control of the Ruhr industrial district, while England objected to any further occupation of German territories unless Germany should default in future payments. On December 26th, by a vote of three to one, the Reparation Commission declared Germany in voluntary default on wood deliveries for 1922 , this being followed (January 9, 1923) by a similar_vote in regard to coal deliveries ; and on January 11, 1923, France, supported by Belgium and in part by Italy , entered the Ruhr, disavowing all intention of political or military occupation, but acting in support of a mission of control appointed to supervise coal production and distribu- Germany were tion. (See Further Reparations.) The financial difficulties of Ge increased by unlimited issues of paper money, leading to the utter collapse of the mark, whose value at the end of 1922 had fallen to about one ten-thousandth of a dollar . In domestic politics the trend of events was toward the firmer establishment of the Republic. On June 24th, Dr. Walter Rathenau, German Foreign Minister and a leading advocate of Germany's fulfillment of her treaty obligations, was assassinated at Berlin by monarchist sympathizers. Liberals and Socialists rallied to the government and measures were taken for the safety of the Republic, though the monarchist movement remained strong in Bavaria , where organized resistance was made both to the enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles and to all democratic measures of the government at Berlin . A reunion of the two divisions of the German Socialist Party (split since 1917) was effected September 21st, making the new United Social Democrats the strongest political group in Germany . Its program includes the protection of the Republic, a finish fight against communism, reparations relief, but also insistence on the duty of Germany to rebuild the devastated areas of France. In November the three non-Socialist parties demanded the forming of a Great Coalition government under which the Social Democrats would be forced to modify their financial
Germany an indefinite geographical expression
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
an indefinite geographical expression. In its original sense it was applied to that portion of Europe inhabited chiefly by Germans. At present there is a tendency to restrict the term to the German Empire . This excludes Austria, one of the most intensely Germanic parts of Europe. In this later and political sense, it includes provinces peopled by Poles, Scandinavians, French, and other foreign elements. The restriction of the terms America and American to the territory and people of the United States may be mentioned as a parallel case. See German Empire ; Vienna Occupying the greater portion of central Europe, Germany is, in political respects the most unfavorably located country in the world. Nowhere protected by such natural boundaries as large rivers or high mountain-ranges, which would block the way of enemies, but easily accessible and vulnerable on all sides, Germany has been, since remotest times, the object of hostile assaults. For a period of four hundred years the German tribes were compelled to defend their independence from the Romans. Later came the horrible invasion by the Huns; the piracies by the Northmen; the frequent attacks by the Magyars, Mongols, and Turks. During the Thirty Years' War Germany served as the great battle-ground for Spanish, Swedish, Italian, and Hungarian troops, who reduced the population from seventeen to four millions and made the country an almost uninhabitable desert. In Saxony, during the two years 1631 and 1632, 943,000 persons were killed or swept away by sickness. In Wurtemberg over 500,000 lost their lives, and 8 cities, 45 towns, 65 churches, and 36,000 houses were burned. The Palatinate, having at that time a population of 500,000, suffered a loss of 457,000, and in some parts of Thuringia more than ninety per cent. of the population perished. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries brought the frequent raids by the French, who left the ruins of hundreds of beautiful castles on the Rhine, Moselle, and Neckar as lasting monuments of their visits. The beginning of the nineteenth century saw the onslaught of that monstrous adventurer Napoleon I, by whom Germany was humiliated as never before. The imperial mantle was torn into shreds and stamped into the dust. The German kingdoms and states were given by Napoleon as presents to his relatives and favorites, who made the German cities ring with their gay life.--Rudolph Cronau, in Mc-Clure's. Cutting rye near town of Schwarza, Germany
What Has Changed in the Last Century
Collier's caught Germany at a single unstable moment in 1921, describing a two-year-old republic of 171,910 square miles and 55,000,000 people, still counting the coal it owed France. That republic fell in 1933; after Hitler's war Germany was divided, and from 1949 to 1990 there were two German states, with Berlin itself split and walled from 1961. Reunification in October 1990 produced today's federal republic of about 83 million people in roughly 138,000 square miles ", smaller still than the 1920 figure, since East Prussia, Silesia and Pomerania are now Russian, Polish and Lithuanian territory. The coal that Collier's treated as the key to industrial recovery is largely gone: Germany closed its last hard-coal mine in 2018 and now plans to end lignite burning as well.
Written for this edition, 2026.