India
India names 5 different subjects across the 6 encyclopedias on this shelf. Each is set out below.
India BRITISH, an extensive region of Southern Asia
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
BRITISH, an extensive region of Southern Asia, celebrated during many ages for its riches and valuable natural productions, its beautiful manucostly factures and costly merchandise, the magnificence of its sovereig sovereigns, and the HITHER early civilization of its people. INDIA is the central peninsula of southern Asia; its length may be stated approximately at 1,900 miles, and its width at 1,600 miles, with an area of about 1,300,- 000 square miles. Pop. about 320,000,- 000. The natural boundaries of this vast region are, on the N., the range of the Himalaya Mountains which separates it from Tartary, China, and Tibet; on the W. the Suliman Mountains divide it from Afghanistan and Beloochistan; on the S. the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Bengal; and on the E. the hill ranges which separate Chittagong and Assam from Burma. From the mouth of the Brahmaputra and the Indus the E. and W. coasts, inclining toward the same point, to meet at Cape Comorin, and thus give give South India the form of an irregular triangle. The two sides of the triangle have each a coast line of about 2,000 miles. India, from its great extent of maritime sea-board, is essentially a country. FARTHER INDIA is the usual name given to the S. E. peninsula of Asia. The great natural divisions of Hither India are the sub-Himalayan countries, the plain of the Ganges, the plain of the Indus, the highlands of northern Hindustan, and the peninsular portion of the country to the S. of the Vindhya Mountains. Topography. - The sub - Himalayan countries form an elevated tract lying between the chief ridge of the Himalayas and the lower elevations which adjoin the plains of the Ganges and Indus. The plain of the Ganges, which includes Bengal, Bahar, the Doab, Oude, Oude, and is a vast alluvial flat, extend- Rohilcund, ing from the Bay of Bengal to the Punjab. Scattered over the agricultural districts, and massed in the great cities and towns, there are not less than 100,000,000 people. The plains of the Indus in the N. W. are less extensive than those of the Ganges, and are separated from the latter by the Aravulli Hills. The Punjab occupies the N. portion. S. of the Punjab, and parallel with the river, the great sandy desert of the Indus extends horse and for nearly 500 miles. The which camel alone can cross this desert, is described in Hindu geography as "the region of death." Like the Terai, it forms a great physical barrier which separates west and east India. The highlands of northern Hindustan extend from the Vindhya Mountains as a base to the border of the Thur. They include the tableland of Malwa and Rajpootana or Rajasthan, which has an elevation of about 2,000 feet above the level of of the sea. The peninsular portion India, S. of the Vindhya Mountains, is The called by the natives the Deccan. most remarkable geographical feature of the area is a central tableland-vast plateau-rising from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the sea, and inclosed on all sides by lofty mountains, between which and the sea, on the E. and W., are narrow strips of low, flat country, divided into several districts. From the low country on the coast to the central tableland the mountains rise abruptly in a succession of gigantic terraces or steps, and hence the name of "Ghauts." Vegetable Productions. The vegetation of India is as varied as its soil and climate, passing from the flora of a tropical to that of an alpine region. The groves of palm that border the coast, and, in the interior, the umbrageous mango topes, are striking features of Indian scenery. Rice is the chief article of food in India, and is produced in all parts of the country in which irrigation is practiced. Maize and wheat are the grain cultivated in the Northwest Provinces. Opium is one of the most valuable products of India. Coffee is largely produced in Ceylon, and the cultivation of the plant is rapidly spreading in THE AMBER TEMPLE AT JAGAT HEREMAIN, INDIA south India. Tea cultivation is now carried on with success in Assam, and is spreading over all the hill countries of northwest India. Cinchona, introduced from South America in 1860, has been naturalized with great success. The growth of cotton has been much extended. The finest is produced in Berar. The rhea, or jute plant, is grown in Assam and Bengal, and has recently given rise to an important trade. India rubber is another important product of Assam, the demand for which is increasing. In order to protect existing forests and extend the area of the timberproducing districts the Indian Forest Conservancy Department was organized. Animals. The domesticated animals are horses, asses, mules, oxen, buffaloes, sheep, and elephants. Of wild beasts the most formidable is the Bengal tiger. The other beasts of prey are leopards, wolves, jackals, panthers, bears, hyenas, lynxes, and foxes. Of poisonous snakes the cobra da capello or black-hooded snake, the cobra manilla, and the sand snake are the most common. Climate.-Hindustan proper may be said to have three well-marked seasons, -the cool, the hot, and the rainy. The climate of south India is greatly regulated by the monsoons. The central table-land is cool, dry, and healthy. Social System and Government. -Two of the most striking peculiarities of the social condition of the Hindus are the iron institution of caste and the village system. The latter is very simple. A village in Hindustan is a district embracing an area of some hundreds or thousands of acres of land, and is under the administration of native functionaries, the principal of whom is the potail ("head inhabitant"), a kind of chief magistrate. Under this simple form of municipal government the inhabitants of the country have lived from time immemorial. Agriculture and Industries. - The chief industry of India is agriculture. Out of a total population of about 313,000,000 nearly 225,000,000 are engaged in this form of industry. Rice is the largest product. There were, in 1918-19, 23,- 672,000 tons produced; of wheat there were 7,502,000 tons; of cotton, 3,671,000 bales; of jute, 6,955,600 bales; and of sugar cane, 2,337,000 tons. The production of tea in the same year was 380,- 459,000 pounds. The total area under cultivation was about 275,000,000 acres. After agriculture, the most important industry is the weaving of cotton cloth. Other industries are silk rearing and weaving, shawl and carpet weaving, wood carving, and metal working. The tea industry employs nearly 800,000 persons. The area planted with tea in 1918-19 was about 625,800 acres. There are over 235 cotton mills, and over 1,500 cotton ginning, cleaning, and pressing mills and factories. The cloth production in 1919 was 349,580,450 pounds. Mineral Production. - The mineral production in 1917, the latest year for which figures are available, amounted to £13,266,566. The most important product is coal, which was valued at £4,- 511,645. Gold was produced with a value of £2,221,889. Other minerals of value are petroleum, manganese ore, salt, and saltpetre. Commerce. The total exports for the year ending March, 1919, amounted to $823,574,016, and the imports to $548,- 389,663. The exports considerably exceed those of March, 1914, while the imports are about $50,000,000 less. The chief articles of import are cotton manufactures, cotton yarn, iron and steel, machinery, copper, woolens, and chemicals. The principal articles of export are tea, wheat, rice, rice meal and flour, and barley. The bulk of the trade is with the United Kingdom. Transportation. There were in 1919 36,616 miles of railway. Of these, 7,- 308 miles were owned by the State and 19,107 were worked by companies. The other lines were conducted under various conditions. There were in 1919 69,283 post offices and 10,373 telegraph offices. Education. The educational institutions are of two classes, those in which the courses of study conform to the standards prescribed by the Department of Public Instruction and are known as public, and those which do not fulfill these conditions, and are called private. The total number of institutions for instruction in 1919 was 196,919. These were attended by 7,948,058 scholars. There were 128,480 primary schools for males and 19,385 for females. The colleges numbered 185 for males and 16 for females, attended by 61,827 males and 11,109 females. The colleges are affiliated with the five universities, at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, the Punjab, and Allahabad. A Hindu university has recently been established at Benares, and another university at Poona. A university has also been created for the Mysore state. Finance. The revenue retained by the government in India for its own purposes and for meeting the expenditure incurred by the Secretary of State in England, is assigned as imperial, while that used by the local government is called provincial. The imperial revenue is derived chiefly from land revenue, opium, and other taxes. It amounted in 1918 to £82,060,000. The provincial revenue amounted to £35,888,000. The total revenue was £121,186,000. The total expenditure was £125,754,000. The chief expenditures are for civil salaries, military services, interest on railway debts, etc. The total debt of British India in 1919 amounted to £456,294,269. Defense. The military forces in India consist of the British Regular Forces, the Native Army, the Volunteers, and the Imperial Service Troops, all under the control of a commander-in-chief who is a member of the viceroy's council. At the outbreak of the World War the army in India was composed of about 75,000 British troops and about 240,000 native troops. The total number of native troops recruited during the war, up to Nov. 11, 1918, was 1,161,789. The defense force act was put in force in 1917 and by its terms compulsory service was applied to European and British subjects, between the ages of 16 and 50. The total number of British and native troops sent from India to France, Mesopotamia, East Africa, Egypt, Galipoli and other fronts numbered 1,215,338. 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Thar 26 Ajmere Nasirabad Gulam Jodhpur o Hala Shahdaldpur Lumi R Beawar MBEYALA Chambal Gwalior AJMERO Barmer Tonk Kotris B Palio Raw Umarkot Sindri Hyderabad Bakhasar Jalor Ara Bundi Jerruckom Siprie Jhanst Karachi Bhilyara Tando a Muhammad Khanad Sirohi Chitor Kotak Baran Tatta Chanderi Nimbhera Mughalbhin Shahbandar Roof Outer Deodara Udaipur Sadrio Nimach Jhalra Patan Mouths ofー 4 Disa the Indus Goona Palabpur Partabgarh Manosaur Kherath Rad Radhanpuro Abhol Patan Jaora Dungarpur Banswara Cute Rotlamhopal Bhilsa Bhuj Dhangadra Mundvi Morvi On Tehri Ammadabad Vijijaln G.of Cutch Wadawan Kala Hoshangabad Kaira Nadiad Dwarka Nuwanagar Godhra Dhat Indore Rajkot Cambayo Baroda 22 Narbada Mhow Barwal A Dholera Chandod Jetbpur Harda Bhaunagar Kathiawarg Porbandar Khandwai Nandod Satpura Range Badaur Gogo Mangrol TO BAROD Datha R. 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Marmagao Adoni GOA Londa H Gunta N Bellary, Gun Sandur MA Sirsi RanibennuAnantapur Karwar 4 Harihar Chitaldrug Kumpta Honawur Shimoga Kandapur Kadur Sira Barkur Tumkur MYSORE Mulki Hassano Hassano Bangalore Mangalore Bantwal orka Seringaratam Terkara Mysore Collegal Cannamored Mahe Tellicherri Salem LACCADIVE (Pr.) • Odorcamund Calicut Beypur Balghato Coimbatore G Porani Trichinopor ISLANDS 0 Trichur/ Madura Kodungarlur 4 Cochin Travanconerelli حد Alleppi Satur Quilon Kollam Aniengo Fum Palaikotta Trivandrum INDIA Kolachel Cape Comorin SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 400 300 200 50 100 SCALE OF KILOMETERS 500 000 0 100 200 300 400 Important towns are shown in heavy face type Canals Railroads C 74 B A 70° pyright, L. L. Poates Eng. Co., 1921 NI K S I Khotan Ak Tagh Keria • Sorgak Godwin Austin 34 Pass Kizil Jilga Dabni Murghi Lingri Then Plains Lanak Pass Leh Tanke Shushal Rudok Kangar 2 D E Hanle Demchok B Lankhar ingmath Tot MA 。 30 Garhwal Badrina nath Tohri Nan LASSA Febrinagar Hardwar R. Bramaputr Kotdwara Almor Bijnaur Naini Tai 3 Sil Garhi UNITED N Muktinath Rampur Morand Morgan Kathgodam Sadiya Dhaulagiri Sa Sonaripur 26,826 Bil Salang Than Gosa Than Mt. Everest Dibrugarh Salena o Dhirang Jong Chandaus Bareilly ShahjalfNCES Bahraich Tassgong Naipalganj Palpa Budaun Lakhin inpar Bhatgaon Kanchanjanga SIKRIN BHUTAN RROVIN。 LaKi 28,150 TUM LON • KHATMANDU A Bibsagar bra Sh Taga Zong Diwan giri • Sindhulia Taplang Golaghat Tulsipur ezpur Sitapu 26 Aro Mainpuri banga Grandad Moharajaryo Phubro. Dhubri Rarpe Dhankutao Bettia peta Nowgong Jalpaiguiri Thar Etarbucknow aiya Unao Oudu Gorakhpur Bhairaghia Bhindo Gauhati Aurai Matigra, Darbhangah Faizabad Goalpara Bho caipur Dal Ganges SS o Ararivac Kohima Ghazipur Ballia Chapra Tuzaffarpur AS Azamgarho Purniah Shillong do Hajipur d Didaipur Rangpur J aunpuro Datiyaamarpurges ra Punji Tura 9890 Silchar Ba Banda Mahabad Gan • Manipu Arrah Patna Nasirabad Katha English Bazar Sylhet wao Sitlahaco Shanganj Mo M Mau Manikpur Behares 4 Rograo arun Mahanabad Moirang Rajmahal Hills Sirajang Gaya Deogarho Dumka Lalitpur Mirzapur Kaliganj d Panna bana Naya Tehri N D bari Branman Kungaung TROPIC OF OF CANCER Karharbarika Shertghati TATES Agartala Maihar Murshidabad Bardi R. Pabna Binage Slugpur bu Paltongan Hazaribagh Dauda Son Naraingan Goalanda Katwax Benga Sagar Comillah Kalemy Damah Katni Janakpur Rangarh Pratabpur Raul Chandpur Garda Purulia Bardwang P Haka Chutia Nagpur Bankurd brakestar Jeksar Madaripur Sudharam Sanhat Mandalay Deor Sohagpur ckhulua 22 R Kangar Seoni Maikal Range Chandaragar Jabalpur Jashpurnagaro Kharsawan Manaplowra Calcutta Chittagong Narsinghpur Rabkol Sarajkala Port Caping Pendra) Bandarban Pachmarhio Mohpani Manikpu ond Har Khunchu Pakokku Kawardha Sakti Suadi Mouths of the Ganges Maskha Baripada Bonai Garho Keunibar CENTRA Bilaspur Cox's Bazar Nilgiri Ku Balasor Sarangarho SambalouroA Kumthi Bhandara Orissa Naaf Nandgaon Kauriya Dhamra Mrohaung (Ar Jajpur 5 Manypte Dongargarh Raipur Myebon o Cuttac Mouths of the Minba Patna Akyab Wardha? PROVINCES Dod Mahanadi B. Daspalla Nowagarh Warora Paunimapur Dhante Kauker Combermere B Harishpur Partabpur Deobhog Russellkonda Wund Chanda Kyauk-pyu Ram Prome Jagannatt Raigarn Nander Ganjar Edalabad Ampani Kasipur Chilka L. Manaung Abirl Berhampur Jagdalpur B 18 Gopalpur Nirviel ironcha Dantewara Barwa Henzada Indore Chinur Jaipur HYDERABADA Baster Nagar Kalingaratam S Kwa DOMINIONS) Kelgandal Malkangir Warangal Chicarole Bimlipatan Golkondaoo Secunderabad Yellande tampa Anakapalle Vizagapatam Rangoon A Khamamat Tuni 6 Hyderabad Rajamahendri the Irawadi Devarkonda Nalgonda, Ellore Cocanada Coringa Mouths of the Yanaon (Fr.) C. Negrais Chanapura Bezwaka Kolas D Mouths of the Godavari Pangal Gunturo Masulipatam F R 0 Mouths of Nandial Nizampatam AY the Kistha 1. PREPARIS Cumbun B 0 Preparis&th Channel Ongol 14 Gooty C - DRAS Kavali Sidhaut GREAT C Coow Channel Cuddapah Nellore 0 Kadirio NORTH ANDAMAN 2 Gurramkonda ANDAMAN SRIHARIKOT 1. Pakala Tirupati Pulicat MIDDLE ANDAMAN 2 L Chittur Arcot Madras 7 A ENG Kolar Conjevaram Vellore Port Blair Wandiwash hengalpat B SOUTH ANDAMAN ISLANDS a Cable Pondichery Fr. Duncan Passage Panroti Cuddalore Atur to Porto Novo LITTLE ANDAMAN Combacorum Penang 0 Mayavarum 10 , Tanjore Tranquebar Karikal (Fr.) Negapatam Tondi Palk Strait Pudukotta Ten Degree, Channel. Adrampet Pt. Pedro Devikota CAR NICOBAR Jaffna Mullaitivu Ramnad NICOBAR 8 Manar CAMORTA Gulf of nevelli Tuticorin Trincomali KATCHALL 1. Kayalpatnam Anuradha Sombrero Channel Tamankaduwa CEYLON Nagarkoil Manar GREAT NICOBAR Puttalam ISLANDS Kurunegala Battikaloa Polgahawelo Kandy D Negombo Nuwara, Badulla Komariya 6 COLOMBO Eliya Bandarawela Kota Radja Little Bassas Kalutara SUMATRA Hambantot Great Bassas Galle 19 OCEAN Matara INDIA N 1907 H 94° G 90° 82° from E Greenwich 86° F 78° Longitude D East The casualties numbered about 115,000. By the end of 1919 only about 13,000 British troops remained to be demobilized in India. Government. The present form of government of India results from the Indian Act of 1915, and amended in 1916 and in 1919. The administration is entrusted to a Secretary of State for India, who resides in England and who is assisted by a council of from 8 to 12 members. In 1919 power was given for missionary the appointment of a high commissioner النسيم mши mmmmmm Πτηv www wwwwwwwww w www min THE GOLDEN TEMPLE AT AMRITSAR, INDIA of India, to whom may be delegated powers by the Secretary of State respecting contracts. In India, the supreme executive authority is vested in a Governor-General Council. The governor-general, or viceroy, is appointed by the Crown and holds office generally for five years. There is a legislature consisting of the governorgeneral and two chambers, the Council of State and the Legislative Assembly. The Council of State consists of not more than 60 members, of whom not more than 20 are officials. The Legislative Assembly consists of 144 members, of whom 26 are officials, and 103 are elected. The Council of State exists for five years and the Assembly for three years. The various departments of government are in charge of the governor - general's executive council. For administrative purposes India is divided into 15 administrations, each of which has a governor, lieutenant - governor, or chief comary. Important changes in the . government of the provinces were mmmmmmm mmmy brought about by the Government of India Act of 1919, which went into effect in 1920. This brings about a greater amount of self-government than heretofore existed. Religion, Philosophy, History, etc.- Hindu theology is contained in the ancient books of the Vedas, which inculcate the worship of the deities, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, the transmigration of souls, and their final absorption into the deity. Buddhism had also its origin in Hindustan, and Mohammedism now extensively prevails. Philosophy, science, and the arts were cultivated from an early period by the Hindus, especially the domestic arts of weaving, dyeing, and working in metals and gems. From the earliest records of history the nations of the Western World derived their merchandise from India. The country was entered and partly subdued by Alexander the Great. About 126 B. c. it was also invaded by the Tartars, or Scythians of the Greeks. From the 10th to the 12th century of the Christian era the Mohammedans overran and conquered considerable portions of Hindustan, and sub- AN على sequently the Mogul empire was formed. In 1428 India was first visited by Vasco de Gama, and later the Portuguese and Dutch established settlements on the peninsula, but the former never acquired more than a paltry territory on the W. coast, and the latter a few commercial factories. The French influence in India, at one time considerable, also yielded to the superior enterprise of the British, and finally the French relinquished the field. In 1625 the first. English settlement was made by a company of merchants in a small spot of the Coromandel coast of 5 square miles, transferred in 1653 to Madras. A short time previous a settlement had also been obtained at Hooghly, which afterward became the Calcutta station. In 1687 Bombay was erected into a presidency. In 1773, by act of the British Legislature, the three provinces were placed under the administration of a governor-general, and Calcutta was made the seat of a supreme court of judicature, the presidencies of Madras and Bombay being made subordinate to that of Bengal. Hitherto the affairs of India had been managed by the TAJ MAHAL, AGRA, INDIA East India Company, but in 1784 a board of control was appointed by the government, the president of which became secretary of state for India. From the year 1750, when the warlike acquisition of territory commenced under Lord Clive, a succession of conquests, almost forced upon the British contrary to their inclinations, have now placed nearly all India under their sway. The early part of British rule was marked by wars with the native princes. Indeed, British power was maintained only by constant fighting. Gradually, however, all the fierce tribes were connowe quered, although at great cost of men and money. The most important campaigns carried on during these years were the First Burmese War, from 1823 to 1828; the Afghan War, which resulted in British disasters, in 1842; the conquest of Sind by Sir Charles Napier from 1842 to 1844; the first Sikh, 1845-6; and the Second Burmese War from 1849 to 1852. By 1856 India was apparently conquered, and was comparatively contented with British rule. that year, however, dissatisfaction arose was and became widespread. This chiefly due to the introduction of modern European improvements and by the annexation policy adopted by the British Government. There had been a failure on the part of English officers to respect the religious feelings of their Indian subjects. This aroused the religious prejudices of the natives, especially the Hindus. Dissatisfaction broke out on May 10, 1857, and is known as the Sepoy Mutiny, from the fact that a large part of Sepoy troops were among the mutineers. Their insurrection rapidly spread ly all the British residents of India. Lon until practically in India were in danger. The principal events of the struggle were the siege of Lucknow, which is one of the most famous sieges of history, and the siege of Following the suppression Cawnpore. Follow , the government of India of the mutiny, ny was transferred to the British Crown in 1858. From that time no serious outbreak has occurred, although small wars een Victoria have occurred yearly. Queen was proclaimed Empress of India, in 1877. Burma was formally annexed by Jan. 1, 1886. Lord the English on Curzon of Kedleston became viceroy in 1898. He devoted himself with great energy to combat plague and famine, then from which the country was suffering. Tibet was opened to British trade as a result of the exposition of 1903. Bengal was partitioned in 1905, and this resulted in much bitterness of feeling among the natives. Lord Curzon resigned in 1905, chiefly as a result of the controversy with Lord Kitchener over the conduct of military affairs. The Earl of Minto was appointed as successor. During his administration there was much discontent, caused chiefly by the wide and swift spread of radical theories among the natives, and a very definite desire for Home Rule. This feeling was stimulated by the victory of Japan over Russia. The government took strong measures to suppress the agitation and at the same time introduced many reforms. In 1910 Lord Hardinge became viceroy. King George, accompanied by Queen Mary, visited India in 1911 and was enthusiastically received. In spite of its internal disturbances, at the outbreak of the World War in 1914 the country at large showed great loyalty to the British Crown. Many of the , Indian princes volunteered for service. in Indian troops were sent to France and , other battlefields, where they greatly distinguished themselves by their courage and endurance. During the progress of In the war, there was continued unrest throughout India and martial law was declared in some parts of the Empire. Much of the trouble was due to propaganda caused by the Mohammedan agitations and by Hindu priests. Lord Hardinge was succeeded in 1916 by Baron Chelmsford, formerly of governor Queensland. During the ea early part of April, 1919, serious disturbances occurred in India. These were scattered over a wide area, and were largely due to legislation enacted for the purpose of suppressing sedition. During 1919 measures were considered in the British Parliament for changes in the Government Lord Chelmsford was succeeded by Earl Reading as Governor-General in 1921. The Catholic missions now confine their attention to their Christian converts. The earliest Protestant missionaries in India came from Holland and Denmark. England's first missionary effort was put forward by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and the Christian Knowledge Society, which commenced in the beginning of the 18th century by aiding the Danish mission already established in South India. The entire number of Indian Protestants in India is about 500,000. Governors-General. -The following is a list of the governors-general of India, with the dates of their appointments. Warren Hastings, 1772. | Sir H. (Lord) Hard- J. McPherson, ing, 1844. Sir Earl Dalhousie, 1847. 1785. Earl (Marquis) Corn- Lord Canning, 1855. Lord Elgin, 1862. wallis, 1786. Lord Teignmouth (Sir Sir John Lawrence, J. Shore), 1793 1863. . of Mornington Earl of Mayo, 1868. Earl (Marquis Wellesley), Lord Northbrook, 1872. Lord Lytton, 1876. 1798. Marquis Cornwallis, Marquis Ripon, of 1805. 1880. Sir G. Barlow, 1805. Earl Dufferin and Ava, Earl of Minto, 1807. 1884. Earl Moira (Marquis Lands- Marquis of of Hastings), 1813. downe, 1888. Earl Amherst, 1823. Lord Elgin, 1893. Lord Curzon, 1898. Bentinck, Lord W. Earl of Minto, 1905 1828. Lord Hardinge Lord Auckland, 1835. Lord Chelm Ellenborough, Lord Earl 1842. INDIA RUBR
India Mystical Systems
An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1920)
Mystical Systems. It would be beyond the scope of such a work as this to undertake to provide any account. of the several religious systems of India, and we must confine ourselves to a description of the mysticism and demonology which cluster round these systems, and an outline of the magic and sorcery of the native peoples of the empire. Hinduism. It may be said that the mysticism of the Hindus was a reaction against the detailed and practical ceremonial of the Vedas. If its trend were summarised it might justly be said that it partakes strongly of disinterestedness; is a pantheistic identifying of subject and object, worshipper and worship; aims at ultimate absorp- India tion in the Infinite; inculcates absolute passivity, the most minute self-examination, the cessation of the physical powers; and believes in the spiritual guidance of the mystical adept. For the Indian theosophists there is only one Absolute Being, the One Reality. True, the pantheistic doctrine of Ekam advitiyam "the One without Second" posits a countless pantheon of gods, great and small, and a rich demonology; but it has to be understood that these are merely illusions of the soul and not realities. Upon the soul's coming to fuller knowledge, its illusions are totally dispelled, but to the ordinary man the impersonality of absolute being is useless. He requires a symbolic deity to bridge the gulf betwixt the impersonal Absolute and his very material self, hence the numerous gods of Hinduism which are regarded by the initiated merely as manifestations of the Supreme Spirit. Even the rudest forms of idolatry in this way possess higher meaning. As Sir Alfred Lyall says: "It (Brahminism) treats all the worships as outward visible signs of the same spiritual truth, and is ready to show how each particular image or rite is the symbol of some aspect of universal divinity. The Hindus, like the pagans of antiquity adore natural objects and forces, -a mountain, a river, or an animal. The Brahmin holds all nature to be the vesture or cloak of indwelling divine energy which inspires everything that produces all or passes man's understanding." The life ascetic has from the remotest times been regarded in India as the truest preparation for communion with the deity. Asceticism is extremely prevalent especially in connection with the cult of Siva, who is in great measure regarded as the prototype of this class. The Yogis or Jogis (disciples of the Yogi philosophy), practise mental abstraction, and are popularly supposed to attain to superhuman powers. The usual results of their ascetic practices are madness or mental vacancy, and their socalled supernatural powers are mostly prophetic, or in too many cases pure jugglery and conjuring. The Parama- Hamsas, that is claim to be identical supreme swans with the world-soul, and have no occupation except meditation on Brahma. They are said to be equally indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible to heat or cold, and incapable of satiety or want. The Sannyasis are those who renounce terrestrial affairs: they are of the character of monks, and are as a general rule extremely dirty. The Dandis or staff-bearers are worshippers of Siva in his form of Bhairava the Terrible. Mr. J. C. Owen in his Mystics, Ascetics and Sects of India says of these Sadhus or holy men :- "Sadhuism whether perpetuating the peculiar idea of the efficacy of asceticism for the acquisition of far-reaching powers over natural phenomena or bearing its testimony to the belief of the indispensableness of detachment from the world as a preparation for the ineffable joy of ecstatic communion with the Divine Being, has undoubtedly tended to keep before men's eyes as the highest ideal, a life of purity and restraint and contempt of the world of human affairs. It has also necessarily maintained amongst the laity a sense of the rights and claims of the poor upon the charity of the more opulent members of the community. Further, Sadhuism by the multiplicity of the independent sects which have arisen in India has engendered and favoured a spirit of tolerance which cannot escape the notice of the most superficial observer." 66 دو One of the most esoteric branches of Hinduism is the Sakta cult . The Saktas are worshippers of the Sakti or female principle as a creative and reproductive agency. Each of the principal gods possesses his own Sakti, through which his creative acts are performed, so that the Sakta worshippers are drawn from all sects. But it is principally in connection with the cult of Siva that Sakta worship is practised. Its principal seat is the north-eastern part of of 66 right-hand" observers and "left-hand " India-Bengal, Behar and Assam. It is divided into two distinct groups. The original self-existent gods were supposed to divide themselves into male and female energies, the male half occupying the right-hand and the female the lefthand side. From this conception we have the two groups observers. In the Tantras or mystical writings, Siva unfolds in the nature of a colloquy in answer to questions asked by his spouse Parvati, the mysteries of Sakta occultism. The right-hand worshippers are by far the most numerous. Strict secrecy is enjoined in the performance of the rites, and only one minor caste, the Kanlas, carry on the mystic and degraded rites of the Tantras. 66 He Brahmanism. - Brahmanism is a system originated by the Brahmans, the sacerdotal caste of the Hindus, at a comparatively early date. It is the mystical religion of India par excellence, and represents the more archaic beliefs of its peoples. It states that the numberless individual existences of animate nature are but so many manifestations of the one eternal spirit towards which they tend as their final goal of supreme bliss. The object of man is to prevent himself sinking lower in the scale, and by degrees to raise himself in it, or if possible to attain the ultimate goal immediately from such state of existence as he happens to be in. The code of Manu concludes who in his own soul perceives the supreme soul in all beings and acquires equanimity towards them all attains the highest state of bliss." Mortification of animal instincts, absolute purity and perfection of spirit, were the moral ideals of the Brahman class. But it was necessary to pass through a succession of four orders or states of existence ere any hope of union with the deity could be held out. These were: that of brahmacharin, or student of religious matters; grihastha, or householder; vanavasin, or hermit; and sannyasin or bhikshu, fakir or religious mendicant. Practically every man of the higher castes practised at least the first two of these stages, while the priestly class took the entire course. Later, however, this was by no means the rule, as the scope of study was intensely exacting, often lasting as long as forty-eight years, and the neophyte had to support himself by begging from door to door. He was usually attached to the house of some religious teacher; and after several years of his tuition was usually married, as it was considered absolutely essential that he should leave a son behind him to offer food to his spirit and to those of his ancestors. He was then said to have become a "Householder" and was required to keep up perpetually the fire brought into his house upon his marriage day. Upon his growing older, the time for him arrived to enter the third stage of life, and he "cut himself off from all family ties except that (if she wished) his wife might accompany him, and went into retirement in a lonely place, carrying with him his sacred fire, and the instruments necessary to his daily sacrifices." Scantily clothed, and with hair and nails uncut, it is set down that the anchorite must live entirely on food growing wild in the forest-roots, herbs, wild grain, and so forth. The acceptance of gifts was not permitted him unless absolutely necessary, and his time was spent in reading the metaphysical portions of the Veda, in making offerings, and in practising austerities with the object of producing entire indifference to worldly desires. In this way he fits himself for the final and most exalted order, that of religious mendicant or bhikshu. This consists solely of meditation. He takes up his abode at the foot of a tree in entire solitude, and only once a day at the end of their labours may he go near the dwellings of men to beg a little food. In this way he waits for death, neither desiring extinction nor existence, until at length it reaches him, and he is absorbed in the eternal Brahma. India The purest doctrines of Brahmanism are to be found in the Vedanta philosophic system, which recognises the Veda, or collection of ancient Sanskrit hymns, as the revealed source of religious belief through the visions of the ancient Rishis or seers. It has been already mentioned that the Hindu regarded the entire gamut of animated nature as being traversed by the one soul, which journeyed up and down the scale as its actions in its previous existence were good or evil. To the Hindu the vital element in all animate beings appears essentially similar, and this led directly to the Brahmanical theory of transmigration, which has taken such a powerful hold upon the Hindu mind. Demonology . A large and intricate demonology has clustered around Hindu mythology. The gods are at constant war with demons. Thus Durga slays Chanda and Asura, and also despatches Durga, a fiend of similar name to herself. Vishnu also slays more than one demon, but Durga appears to have been a great enemy of the demon race. The Asuras, probably a very ancient and aboriginal pantheon of deities, later became demons in the popular imagination, and the Rakshasas were cloud-demons. They are described as cannibals, could take any form, and were constantly menacing the gods. They haunt cemeteries, disturb sacrifices, animate the dead, harry and afflict mankind in all sorts of ways. In fact they are almost an absolute parallel with the vampires of Slavonic countries; and this greatly assists the conclusions of Asikoff that the Slavonic vampires were originally cloud-spirits. We find the gods constantly harassed by demons; and on the whole we may be justified in concluding that just as the Tuatha-de-danaan harassed the later deities of Ireland , so did these aboriginal gods lead an existence of constant immigrant Aryans. warfare with the divine beings of the pantheon of the Popular Witchcraft and Sorcery . -The popular witchcraft and sorcery of India greatly resembles that of Europe. The Dravidian or aboriginal races of India have always been strong believers in witchcraft, and it is possible that here we have an example of the mythic influence of a conquered people. They are, however, extremely reticent regarding any knowledge they possess of it. It is practically confined to them, and this might lead to the hasty supposition that the Aryan races of India possess no witchcraft of their own. But this is strongly unlikely, and the truth probably lies quite in the other direction; however, the extraordinarily high demands made upon the popular religious sense by Brahmanism probably crushed the superstitions of the lower cultus of a very early period, and confined the practice of minor sorcery to the lower castes, who were of course of Dravidian or aboriginal blood. We find witchcraft most prevalent among the more isolated and least advanced races, like the Kols, Bhils, and Santals. The nomadic peoples are also strong believers in sorcery, one of the most dreaded forms of which is the Jigar Khor, or liver-eater, of whom Abul Fazl says:- "One of this class can steal away the liver of another by looks and incantations. Other accounts say that by looking at a person he deprives him of his senses, and then steals from him something resembling the seed of a pomegranate, which he hides in the calf of his leg; after being swelled by the fire, he distributes it among his fellows to be eaten, which ceremony concludes the life of the fascinated person. A Jigar Khor is able to communicate his art to another by teaching him incantations, and by making him eat a bit of the liver cake. These Jigar Khors are mostly It is said they can bring intelligence from a long distance in a short space of time, and if they are thrown into a river with a stone tied to them, they nevertheless will not sink. In order to deprive any one of this wicked women. power, they brand his temples and every joint of his body, cram his eyes with salt, suspend him for forty days in a subterranean chamber, and repeat over him certain incantations." The witch does not, however, devcar the man's liver for two and a half days, and even if she has eaten it, and is put under the hands of an exorciser, she can be forced to substitute a liver of some animal in the body of the man whom she victimised. We also hear tales of witches taking out the entrails of people, sucking them, and then replacing them. All this undoubtedly illustrates, as in ancient France and Germany, and probably also in the Slavonic countries, the original combination of witch and vampire; how, in fact, the two were one and the In India the arch-witch Ralaratri, or "black same. night" has the joined eyebrows of the Salvonic werewolf or vampire, large cheeks, widely-parted lips, projecting teeth, and is a veritable vampire. But she also possesses the powers of ordinary witchcraft, -second-sight, the making of philtres, the control of tempests, the evil eye, and so forth. Witches also take animal forms, especially those of tigers; and stories of trials are related at which natives gave evidence that they had tracked certain tigers to their lairs, which upon entering they had found tenanted by a a notorious witch or wizard. For such witch-tigers the usual remedy is to knock out their teeth to prevent their doing any more mischief. Strangely enough the Indian witch, like her European prototype, is very often accompanied by a cat. The cat, say the jungle people, is aunt to the tiger, and taught him everthing but how to climb a tree. Zalim Sinh, the famous regent of Kota, believed that cats were associated with witches, and imagining himself enchanted ordered that every cat should be expelled from his province. 66 As in Europe, witches are known by certain marks. They are believed to learn the secrets of their craft by eating offal of all kinds. The popular belief concerning them is that they are often very handsome and neat, and invariably apply a clear line of red lead to the parting of their hair. They are popularly accused of exhuming dead children, and bringing them to life to serve occult purposes of their own. They cannot die so long as they are witches, and until, as in Italy, they can pass on their knowledge of witchcraft to someone else. They recite charms backwards, repeating two letters and a half from a verse in the Koran. If a certain charm is repeated forwards," the person employing it will become invisible to his neighbour, but if he repeats it backwards, he will assume whatever shape he chooses. A witch can acquire power over her victim by getting possession of a lock of hair, the paring of nails, or some other part of his body, such as a tooth. For this reason natives of India are extremely careful about the disposal of such, burying them in the earth in a place covered with grass, or in the neighbourhood of water, which witches universally dislike. Some people even fling the cuttings of their hair into running water. Like the witches of Europe too, they are in the practice of making images of persons out of wax, dough, or similar substances, and torturing them, with the idea that the pain will be felt by the person whom they desire to injure. In India the witches' familiar is known as Bir or the "hero," who aids her to inflict injury upon human beings. The power of the witch is greatest on the 14th, 15th and 29th of each month, and in particular on the Feast of Lamps, and the Festival of Durga. Witches are often severely punished amongst the isolated hill-folk and a diabolical ingenuity is shown in torturing them. To nullify their evil influence, they are beaten with rods of the castor-oil plant and usually die in the process. They are often forced to drink filthy water used by curriers in the process of their work, or their noses are cut off, or India they are put to death. As has been said, their teeth are often knocked out, their heads shaved and offal is thrown at them. In the case of women their heads are shaved and their hair is attached to a tree in some public place. They are also branded; have a ploughshare tied to their legs; and made to drink the water of a tannery. During the Mutiny, when British authority was relaxed, the most atrocious horrors were inflicted upon witches and sorcerers by the Dravidian people. Pounded chilli peppers were placed in their eyes to see if they would bring tears, and the wretched beings were suspended from a tree head downwards, being swung violently from side to side. They were then forced to drink the blood of a goat, and to exorcise the evil spirits that they had caused to enter the bodies of certain sick persons. The mutilations and cruelties practised on them are such as will not bear repetition, but one of the favourite ways of counteracting the spells of a witch is to draw blood from her, and the local priest will often prick the tongue of the witch with a needle, and place the resulting blood on some rice and compel her to eat it. In Bombay, the aboriginal Tharus are supposed to possess special powers of witchcraft, so that the "Land of Tharus is a synonym for witch-land. In Gorakhpur, witches are also very numerous, and the half-gypsy Banjaras, or grain-carriers, are notorious believers in witchcraft. In his interesting Popular Religion and Folk-love of Northern India, Mr. W. Crooke, who has had exceptional opportunities for the study of the native character, and who has done much to clear up the dark places of Indian popular mythology, says regarding the various types of Indian witches :- " At the present day the half-deified witch most dreaded in the Eastern Districts of the North-western Provinces is Lona, or Nona, a Chamarin or woman of the currier caste. Her legend is in this wise. The great physician Dhanwantara, who corresponds to Luqman Hakim of the Muhammadans, was once on his way to cure King Parikshit, and was deceived and bitten by the snake king Takshaka. He therefore desired his sons to roast him and eat his flesh, and thus succeed to his magical powers. The snake king dissuaded them from eating the unholy meal, and they let the cauldron containing it float down the Ganges. A currier woman, named Lona, found it and ate the contents, and thus succeeded to the mystic powers of Dhanwantara. She became skilful in cures, particularly of snake-bite. Finally she was discovered to be a witch by the extraordinary rapidity with which she could plant out rice seedlings. One day the people watched her, and saw that when she believed herself unobserved she stripped herself naked, and taking the bundle of the plants in her hands threw them into the air, reciting certain spells. When the seedlings forthwith arranged themselves in their proper places, the spectators called out in astonishment, and finding herself discovered, Nona rushed along over the country, and the channel which she made in her course is the Loni river to this day. So a saint in Broach formed a new course for a river by dragging his clothes behind him. " Another terrible witch, whose legend is told at Mathura, is Putana, the daughter of Bali, king of the lower world. She found the infant Krishna asleep, and began to suckle him with her devil's milk. The first drop would have poisoned a mortal child, but Krishna drew her breast with such strength that he drained her life-blood, and the fiend, terrifying the whole land of Braj with her cries of agony, fell lifeless on the ground. European witches suck the blood of children; here the divine Krishna turns the tables on the witch. "The Palwar Rajputs of Oudh have a witch ancestress. . Soon after the birth of her son she was engaged in baking cakes. Her infant began to cry, and she was obliged to perform a double duty. At this juncture her husband arrived just in time to see his demon wife assume gigantic and supernatural proportions, so as to allow both the baking and nursing to go on at the same time. But finding her secret discovered, the witch disappeared, leaving her son as a legacy to her astonished husband. Here, though the story is incomplete, we have almost certainly, as in the case of Nona Chamarin, one of the Melusina type of legend, where the supernatural wife leaves her husband and children, because he violated some taboo, by which he is forbidden to see her in a state of nudity, or the like. "The history of witchcraft in India, as in Europe, is one of the saddest pages in the annals of the people. Nowadays, the power of British law has almost entirely suppressed the horrible outrages which, under the native administration were habitually practised. But particularly in the more remote and uncivilized parts of the country this superstition still exists in the minds of the people and occasional indications of it, which appear in our criminal records, are quite sufficient to show that any relaxation of the activity of our magistrates and police would undoubtedly lead to its revival in some of its more shocking forms." The aborigines of India live in great fear of ghosts and invisible spirits, and a considerable portion of their time is given up to averting the evil influences of these. Protectives of every description litter their houses, and the approaches to them, and they wear numerous amulets for the purpose of averting evil influences. Regarding these, Mr. Crooks says:- " Some of the Indian ghosts, like the Ifrit of the Arabian Nights, can grow to the length of ten yojanas or eighty miles. In one of the Bengal tales a ghost is identified because she can stretch out her hands several yards for a vessel. Some ghosts possess the very dangerous power of entering human corpses, like the Vetala, and swelling to an enormous size. The Kharwars of Mirzapur have a wild legend, which tells how long ago an unmarried girl of the tribe died, and was being cremated. While the relations were collecting wood for the pyre, a ghost entered the corpse, but the friends managed to expel him. Since then great care is taken not to leave the bodies of women unwatched. So, in the Panjab, when a great person is cremated the bones and ashes are carefully watched till the fourth day, to prevent a magician interfering with them. If he has a chance, he can restore the deceased to life, and ever after retain him under his influence. This is the origin of the custom in Great Britain of waking the dead, a practice which most probably originated from a silly superstition as to the danger of a corpse being carried off by some of the agents of the invisible world, or exposed to the ominous liberties of brute animals.' But in India it is considered the best course, if the corpse cannot be immediately disposed of, to measure it carefully, and then no malignant Bhut can occupy it. " Most of the ghosts whom we have been as yet considering are malignant. There are, however, others which are friendly. Such are the German Elves, the Robin Goodfellow, Puck, Brownie and the Cauld Lad of Hilton of England, the Glashan of the Isle of Man, the Phouka or Leprehaun of Ireland. Such, in one of his many forms, is the Brahmadaitya, or ghost of a Brahman who has died unmarried. In Bengal he is believed to be more neat and less mischievous than other ghosts; the Bhuts carry him in a palanquin, he wears wooden sandals, and lives in a Banyan tree. Insufflation Infernal Court. - Wierus and others, learned in the lore of the infernal regions, have discovered therein princes and high dignitaries, ministers, ambassadors, and officers of state, whose names would fill much space to little purpose Satan is no longer the soverign of Hades, but is, so to speak, leader of the opposition. The true leader is Beelzebub. 66 "
India a country of southern Asia
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
a country of southern Asia. Roughly speaking, it consists of the great central peninsula of Hindustan, the provinces on the southern slope of the great mountain system, and a strip of land down the eastern shore of the Bay of Bengal. A peculiar feature of Hindustan proper is a precipitous sea wall from 3,000 to 7,000 feet high, following the eastern and western shores like a capital V. It extends inland from forty to seventy miles, sloping gradually into the elevated interior of the peninsula. The two branches are known as the eastern and western ghats or ghauts respectively. The western ghauts are the higher. The entire peninsula tips toward the east. The drainage of India is wholly into the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Named from the west, the great rivers are three: the Indus, the Ganges, and the Brahmaputra. The area of all India is 1,766,642 square miles. The population in 1901 was reported at 294,361,056, an average of 167 per square mile. Next to China, India contains the greatest mass of people under one government on the face of the globe. The number of people is beyond comprehension. With the exception of China, and possibly the Mississippi valley, India is the only region of the globe capable of sustaining so great a population. The valleys of its great rivers have enormous flood plains enriched by annual over-flows. Adjoining these are areas of abundant rainfall. In addition, 12,000,000 acres have been brought under cultivation by means of irrigation. A single canal leading out from the Ganges has 440 miles of a main channel and 2,703 miles of tributaries. It supplies water to over 1,000,000 acres. Of the vast population, nearly three-fourths are dependent on agriculture. The people live in hamlets and farm in a small way. Rice, wheat, millet, sugar-cane, tea, cotton, oil seeds, indigo, and tobacco are the principal field crops. There are 70,000,000 acres under rice alone. Jute, coffee, and poppies are also important crops. Garden patches produce household vegetables and melons. Potatoes thrive near the mountains. The orchard fruits are the mango, guava, olive, citron, pomegranate, tamarind, and custard apple. Irrigated and well watered lands produce two crops a year. Over 27,000,000 acres are under double crops. Save well up in the Himalayas the climate is exceedingly hot. After a few years' service Europeans find it necessary to leave in order to recuperate. The amount of rainfall varies greatly. There are districts, especially in the west, little better than the Caspian region. Streams lose themselves in the sand. On the other hand, a certain region on the slope of the Himalayas has the heaviest rainfall known. It amounts at times to 120 inches or 10 feet per year. Portions of India are densely covered with forests. The most valuable timber tree is the teak, found near Bombay, and along the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The deodar is found in the valleys of the Himalayas. Forests of pines, cedars, and caoutchouc yield large revenues. Of late the government had undertaken to control the forests and to require permits for the cutting of timber. There are extensive tracts of bamboo. The jungles of India are celebrated for wild flowers, especially gorgeous orchids. The largest and fiercest wild animals known hide in these woody growths. The Indian tiger is a much more powerful animal than the lion. The elephant, rhinoceros, leopard, bear, hyena, jackal, wolf, deer, antelope, wild boar, and monkey are yet numerous. The eagle, vulture, falcon, kingfisher, quail, heron, and stork are native birds. Notwithstanding the dense population, considerable portions of the country are uninhabited. There are thirty-one large cities,--Calcutta, the largest, having a population of over 1,000,000. Fifty-two others have a population exceeding 50,000 each. The chief manufactures are cotton, woolen, jute, and paper goods. There are also breweries, sugar refineries, and ice plants. There are 329 coal mines. Many small industries, such as weaving and spinning, are carried on in the homes. There are also soap factories, tanneries, oil mills, factories of pottery and tile, cigar factories, glass works, dye works, and printing establishments. The commerce of India is of ancient origin. The struggles of the Babylonians, Egyptians, Persians, and Greeks, of which we read in ancient history, were in part, at least, efforts to control the rich caravan trade of India. The discovery of America was but an incident in a methodical attempt to find a water route between western Europe and the valleys of the Indus and the Ganges. The commerce of India is open to the world, but a good half is controlled by British merchants. Accounts are kept in rupees. The rupee is worth about thirty-two cents. R X is the symbol for ten rupees. Rice, wheat, cotton, opium, oil seeds, hides and skins, jute both raw and manufactured, tea, indigo, dyes, coffee, wool, spices, lac, sugar, silk, oils, wood, and saltpetre are exported to Great Britain to the value of $150,000,000 annually. Cloth, hardware, cutlery, machinery, liquors, railway equipment, groceries, salt, glass, chemicals, paper umbrellas, to nearly twice the amount, are returned nearly all by way of the Suez Canal . The sale of Indian products to foreign countries has risen from $5,000,000 in 1700 to not less than $400,000,000 at the present time. Nominally, India is an empire. King Edward of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is the emperor. Practically, India is a British possession. It is controlled by a member of the British cabinet, known as the Secretary for India. He is assisted by a council of ten members, who are required by law to have had actual experience in India. The Indian end of the government consists of a governor general resident at Calcutta. He receives a salary of $80,000 a year. Warren Hastings was the first to hold the position. The governor general is assisted by a local council of six secretaries, called the Home, Finance, Military, Public Works, Revenue and Agriculture, and Legislative secretaries respectively. There are sixteen additional members. The department of foreign affairs is managed by the governor-general himself. This council is practically a parliament for India. India is divided into eight provinces, each administered by a governor or other high official. A number of minor districts are in charge of native chiefs, whose acts are controlled by resident British officials. The chief income of the government is derived from the rental of public lands . The government has also a monopoly of the opium business. Lands are rented for the purpose under proper instruction. Opium is bought, manufactured, and purified by the government only. It yields a considerable revenue. The chief expenditures are for salaries, for military supplies, and for a standing army of 230,000 men. One-third of these are European regiments stationed in India for a time. The history of British influence reminds the reader of the camel that thrust in first its nose, then head, neck, shoulders, and finally took possession of the entire tent. British occupation began in 1639, with the opening of a trading station at Madras. The establishment of other stations, as Bombay, followed. Sides were taken in the quarrels between native princes. British soldiers made and unmade rulers. Nabobs and moguls were taken under protection; then their territory was taken under protection, until finally, after enormous expenditures of men and money, balanced, of course, by the profits of trade and the receipts of the treasury, India became British. Some writers are inclined to class the conquest of India with highway robbery. The rivals of England for the possession of these rich, vast, defenseless provinces were Portugal, Holland, and France. It was simply a choice of evils or blessings, as the case may be. British rule has done much for India. Irrigation and the public hoarding of food supplies have rendered famines on a large scale, at least less likely to occur. Local wars between the various provinces have ceased. The thugs and other classes of criminals have been exterminated. Life and property have been made reasonably secure. Sutteeism, or the burning of widows with the bodies of their deceased husbands, as well as the practice of throwing infants into the sacred river, have been suppressed rigorously. Twenty-five thousand miles of railroads have been built. Many times that mileage of public highways have been graded and covered with crushed stone or, in the low alluvial lands, paved with burned brick. The cities have been required to adopt sanitary methods of sewerage, and to clear up the filthy, pestilence-breathing suburbs with which they were surrounded. India is by no means a healthful country, but the death rate has been lowered by British rule. The enormous population is still illiterate. Two hundred and forty-six million people are reported as unable to read and write, yet 148,000 schools have been established. Four million children are now in attendance. The government also maintains a normal school in each province. There are five universities with about 7,000 students enrolled. There are also medical colleges and universities. Of late the Indian government has given much attention to plans for the improvement of agriculture. Experiment farms and agricultural schools have been established. Attention has been directed to methods of rotating crops, enriching the soil, and to the introduction of improved implements and of machinery. Better breeds of cattle, horses, and ponies have been introduced. In 1902 there were 42,747 postoffices and mail stations, as against 753 in 1856. In the year mentioned the postoffice department handled 574,053,065 pieces of mail. There are 710 newspapers, publishing in twenty-one languages or dialects. Over 2,000 printing presses are at work. The growth of business is but indicative of the advance that has taken place in other departments. The problems of India are by no means solved. Millions of people are in ignorance and poverty. Entire villages do not possess as much property, let alone food and clothing, as is owned by the family of a single prosperous western farmer. There is a vast territory to be governed, and the wants of a diversified population to be provided for. The people of India are not of one blood and nationality. In fact, India is a museum of races. There are no less than twenty-five more or less distinct groups of languages. The great river plains are occupied in the main by a people of the white race. They are related, and not very distantly, to the nations of Europe. The mountain districts of the Himalayas and the great table land of southern Hindustan are occupied chiefly by tribes driven from their former homes in the fertile valleys. Primitive people from the plains are still hidden away in the recesses of the mountains. There are tribes in the jungles that live on mice and other small animals, wild fruits, etc. They have neither homes nor fire, but flee like monkeys on the approach of men. It is estimated that there are several million people in India whose methods of living are on a level with those of the lowest negro tribes in darkest Africa. The situation with relation to religious matters is equally complicated. There are a dozen different religious beliefs. There are about 207,000,000 adherents of Hinduism in its various forms; 62,000,000 are Mohammedans. There are over 9,000,000 Buddhists, about 3,000,000 Christians, several million people whose religious belief it is difficult to classify, as well as a million or two each of Sikhs and Jains. There are about 18,000 Jews engaged in commerce or money lending. Of the Christians about half are Roman Catholics. The Church of England has half a million adherents. Baptists, Lutherans, Presbyterians, and others follow in the order named. In addition to diversity of race and religion, there is the problem of caste. Successive invasions of the country have resulted in the depression of the earlier inhabitants into an inferior social position. Until of late it was worse than leprosy to eat food, or even to touch the clothing of one of inferior caste. On the other hand, there is much in Indian literature and art of interest. The wealthy had magnificent palaces. The lace, the gems, the precious work, the monuments and decorations of India, are famous in the history of art. The Buddhist pagodas and the cave temples of India, the latter being vast rock-hewn places of worship, cut in the living rock, are the marvel of modern writers. STATISTICS. The following statistics are the latest to be had from trustworthy sources: Land area (square miles) 1,766,642 Population (1901) 294,400,000 Calcutta 1,026,987 Bombay 776,006 Madras 509,346 Hyderabad 448,466 Lucknow 264,049 Rangoon 234,881 Benares 209,331 Delhi 208,575 Lahore 202,964 Cawnpore 197,170 Agra 188,022 Mandalay 183,816 Members of council 370 Salary of governor-general $80,000 Annual government expenditure $350,000,000 Bonded indebtedness $1,116,000,000 Acres under crop 214,000,000 Acres irrigated 22,000,000 Irrigation canals, miles 112,000 Domestic Animals-- Horses 1,463,000 Mules 55,000 Asses 1,340,000 Camels 442,000 Cattle 91,284,000 Buffaloes 15,134,000 Sheep 21,824,000 Goats 28,546,000 Agricultural Productions-- Rice, pounds 43,025,840,000 Wheat, bushels 279,000,000 Coffee, pounds 30,000,000 Tea, pounds 250,000,000 Cotton, pounds 2,454,000,000 Jute, pounds 3,500,000,000 Linseed, pounds 40,000,000 Sesamum, pounds 1,000,000 Cane sugar, pounds 4,500,000,000 Mineral Productions-- Gold, value $10,000,000 Coal, tons 11,000,000 Petroleum, gallons 152,000,000 Salt, tons 1,100,000 Rubies and sapphires, carats 640,000 Paper, pounds 55,000,000 Books, volumes 9,700 Cotton cloth, yards 800,000,000 Savings bank deposits $35,000,000 Number of postoffices 59,424 Letters and postcards carried 746,000,000 Miles of railway 30,000 No. persons able to read and write, 15,000,000 Teachers in elementary schools 112,000 Pupils enrolled 4,000,000 Exports $600,000,000 Rice $70,000,000 Cotton $121,000,000 Opium $29,000,000 Jute $120,000,000 Tea $35,000,000 Indigo $20,000,000 Spices $2,000,000 Hides $16,000,000 See East India Company ; Opium ; Rice ; Cotton ; Bamboo ; Quinine ; Bombay ; Calcutta ; Himalayas; Taj Mahal ; Brahma ; Buddha ; Deodar; Teak ; Tiger ; Elephant ; Gavial ; Cobra ; Irrigation ; Hindu; Indus; Ganges ; Thug; Suttee ; Caste ; Juggernaut
India 1922. A so-called civil disobedience order
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
1922. A so-called civil disobedience order, issued by the Indian National Congress at the instance of its leader, Mohandas Gandhi, was followed early in 1922 by serious rioting at a number of places. The order was suspended by the Congress in February to await the passing of violent Hindu feeling, but rioting continued in defiance of the leaders. The unrest of India's Moslem population, arising out of Great Britain's Turkish policy, culminated in an alliance between the Moslem League and Gandhi's supporters, the Indian National Congress, whose demands now became not only for home rule, but for the restoration to Turkey of territories taken from that country in the World War. A sensation was caused by the publication on March 8th of a message sent by Lord Reading, Indian Viceroy, to the British Home Government in which he urged the immediate revision of the Treaty of Sèvres to allay the intensity of Moslem discontent The publication of the message in England led to the resignation of Edwin S. Montagu as Secretary for India. Viscount Peel succeeded him. The arrest of Gandhi on the charge of sedition followed on March 10th and eight days later he was convicted and sentenced to prison. The non-cooperative movement went on and non-payof taxes, ment rents, and loans was widespread, but the progress of the year brought a lull in disturbances. The Turkish success against the Greeks in August and September, 1922, aroused great enthusiasm among the Indian Moslems and a new campaign of civil disobedience was threatened in case the Western Allies, particularly England, came to new war with the Turks. The Mohammedans of India strongly disapproved of British participation in the flight of the deposed Sutan-Caliph, Mohammed VI, from Constantinople. They accepted the new Caliph, Abdul Medjid, elected by the Turkish National Assembly. The All-India Nationalist Congress in December declared that home rule remained the most important of India's problems and that it must be won by non-violent, non-cooperative methods. A statement by Gandhi in the summer of 1922 showed that the goal of the non-cooperative movement was the complete discarding of western civiliza- IMMIGRATION. (See UNITED tion and India's return to universal peasant life. INTERNATIONAL LABOR OFFICE & CONFERENCES, established under the Treaty of Versailles for the purpose of improving the conditions of labor throughout the world. States entitled to membership are those included in the League of Nations, but others, including the United States, have been especially invited to participate. General Conferences are held at least once every year, the membership consisting of four representatives from each of the member states, two of whom are government delegates and two of whom represent respectively the employers and workpeople of the member states, chosen in agreement with employers' and labor organizations. The International Labor Office, established at Geneva, is under the control of a governing body representing the governments, employers, and workers of the member states. Its functions include the collection and distribution of information on labor subjects and the preparation of agenda for the General Conferences. The Conferences may make recommendations to be submitted to the proper authorities in the several member states, but no obligation rests upon the members to adopt the recommendations made. The U. S. Chamber of Commerce is at present (January, 1923) considering the advisability of participating in the employers' section of the International Labor Office. IRISH FREE STATE. The British evacuation of southern Ireland was practically completed in May, 1922, but internal obstacles prevented the full carrying out of the Anglo-Irish treaty arrangements till the end of the year. The Ulster boundary question remained unsettled, while continued factional strife in Belfast led to strained relations and bitter feelings, with border raids, kidnappings, fighting, and bloodshed. An agreement looking to the establishment of peace and the ultimate friendly settlement of the boundary question was signed March 30, 1922, by representatives of the British Cabinet, Ulster, and the Free State Provisional Government. The Irish Free State bill by which England definitely relinquished all part in Irish affairs and by which the Provisional Government was made supreme in southern Ireland pending the first general elections under the treaty, was signed by King George March 31st. But the treaty with England had already been gland repudiated by Re Republican extremists under the leadership of former President Eamon De Valera, and civil war conditions were renewed throughout Ireland, with the Irish Provisional Government troops now opposed to the "rebels" or Republican army. A one-day strike of protest on the part of Irish labor, together with appeals by Irish Catholic bishops and by army leaders representing both factions, led to a temporary truce in May, and parliamentary elections took place June 16th, resulting in a sweeping victory for the advocates of the treaty. The "Republicans" at once renewed hostilities, however. Rebel forces in possession of the Dublin Law Courts defied the government and intimidated the city until overcome by Free State forces. Guerilla fighting was renewed in other places and resulted in the loss of many lives and great destruction of property, both public and private. Michael Collins, acting as commanderin-chief of the Free State army, was ambushed and killed by a rebel force on August 22nd, his death following close upon that of President Griffith of the Dail Eireann, which occurred August 12th. The new Irish Parliament met September 9th, and elected William T. Cosgrave to succeed President Griffith. A general amnesty was offered in October, but was practically ignored by the Republican insurgents, after which sterner measures of repression were inaugurated, including the execution of De Valera's chief lieutenant, Erskine Childers, on November 24th. De Valera himself on November 28th, proclaimed his resumption of the title and powers of President of the Irish Republic, and a war of destruction and incendiarism, with kidnappings, assassinations, executions and reprisals, continued into 1923. The Free State constitution, as adopted by the Parliament, was accepted by the British Parliament December 4th, and Timothy Healy, the veteran Nationalist leader, was at once appointed first Governor-General. The Free State was proclaimed December 6th, William Cosgrave being chosen first President of the Cabinet. The legislative power under the constitution is vested in a Parliament (Oireachtas) of two houses, a Eireann) Deputies (Dail Eirean and a Senate (Seanad) composed of members chosen by a more restricted electorate and by methods intended to secure representation for important interests and institutions of the country, in addition to all the universities. The first Senate, outside of the university members, was nominated partly by the President of the Cabinet and partly elected by the Dail Eireann. The executive power in the Irish Free State is vested in a cabinet or Executive Council whose President is chosen by and from the Dail Eireann in accordance with the usuages of all parliamentary government. (The Fascisti: Revolution ITALY. of 1922.) The first so-called Fasci di Combattimento, composed of ex-soldiers of the World War in northern Italy, were formed soon after the conclusion of the war for the purpose of compelling the Italianization of the newly annexed provinces at the head of the Adriatic Sea. Members of the bands took an active part in d'Annunzio's attempt to secure Fiume for Italy in 1919 and 1920. In internal affairs, the same nationalist ideals which prompted the demand for a strong foreign policy led to the formation of Fascista bands whose primary object was opposition to the tide of antipatriotic communism which was then sweeping triumphantly over Italy, attended by numerous subversive disorders in the face of which the government stood apparently intimidated. The methods of the Fascisti were those of direct action in its most primitive forms of personal force and violence, and a bitter internal struggle ensued between the new organization and the Socialist Party, the Fascisti rapidly gaining in power not only in comparison with the weakening Socialist mo movement, but with movement, reference to the national government itself, whose authority soon came to be openly defied by the Fascisti leaders. In the May elections of 1921 thirty-five Fascisti had won seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and in November of that year the organization formed itself into a political party, its avowed aim being to govern the country by constitutional means if possible, but by force if necessary. During 1921 and 1922 cities were repeatedly occupied by armed forces on the pretense of putting down strikes and disorders, and in March of the latter year Fascista forces again seized Fiume, which had been made a free city by treaty. Inability to deal with Fascista violence led to the fall of the government of Premier Facta as early as July, 1922, but this was followed by its temporary restoration and martial law was proclaimed in six provinces in an effort to put an end to the disorders. The Fascisti, however, continued to grow, even drawing adherents from the ranks of labor by promise of an altered attitude toward labor organizations if the latter would withdraw from the Socialist party. Following the suppression of a general strike in August, the Fascisti organization with armed forces now numbering half a million men was recognized by a large part of Italy as the actual source of government in the country and it now moved forward rapidly to assume full control. A virtual ultimatum was sent to the government demanding a general election in December with such changes in the electoral law as would give the Fascisti full control of the Parliament without the need of governing by coalitions, and a congress held at Naples, October 24th, ordered a general mobilization of Fascisti forces with the avowed purpose of marching on Rome and taking possession of the government by force if necessary. Benito Mussolini, the Fascisti leader, had already been offered a place in the cabinet, but his demand was for absolute control. On October 26th, Premier Facta resigned a second time, and two days later King Victor Em- J
India A name used by the Greeks and Romans
1000 Classical Characters (1900)
A name used by the Greeks and Romans, much as the modern term East Indies, to describe the whole of the southeast part of Asia , including the two peninsulas of Hindustan and of Burmah, Cochin- China, Siam, and Malacca, and also the islands of the Indian Archipelago.
What Has Changed in the Last Century
When Collier's wrote this in 1921, all of what it describes was British-ruled territory of some 320 million people, and the writer could speak of "the iron institution of caste" as an unchanging fact of village life. British rule ended in August 1947, when the subcontinent was partitioned into independent India and Pakistan, with East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh in 1971; Burma and Ceylon (now Myanmar and Sri Lanka) also went their own ways. India's population has since passed 1.4 billion, overtaking China's in 2023, and caste discrimination has been formally outlawed under the constitution adopted in 1950, though it remains socially powerful. The opium revenue the entry calls "one of the most valuable products of India" is long gone, while tea, cotton and jute survive alongside an economy now dominated by services and software.
Written for this edition, 2026.