League

Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)

a combination or union beor union be tween two or more persons for the profor the promotion of mutual or common interests, or on interests, or for the execution of any design in com- Also a treaty, alliance, or confedace, or confedmon. eration between two or more sovereigns love sovereigns or governments for mutual aid and dealaid and defense. An offensive league or alliance is oralliance is when two or more states agree to unite in attacking a common enemy; a defensive league is when the contracting parntracting por ties agree to assist each other in their other in their defense against a common enemy. enemy. LEAGUE OF NATIONS. While this While this ideal has been in the mind of many modof many modern thinkers on international law and while many statesmen have furthered of pracfurthered the idea it first became a matter the influence tical statesmanship through of President Wilson. In his famous adis famous address, Jan. 8, 1918, he gave as the last of the comas the last of his celebrated fourteen bases of of the coming peace: - "A general association of sasociation of nations must be formed under specific under specific covenants for the purpose of affording of affording mutual guarantees of political and terical and ferritorial independencies for great and great an small states alike." Later in the year, at in the year, at the Independence Day celebration eclebration a Mt. Vernon, the President said one of the aid one of the ends to which the United States entered of an States entered the war was: "The establishment make of an organization of peace which shall it certain that the combined power of free nations will check every invasion of right and serve to make peace and justice the more secure by affording a definite tribunal of opinion to which all must submit." Finally on Sept. 27, 1918, he the League of Naagain reiterated that tions would play an important part in the peace settlement, in fact he declared it to be an "indispensable instrumentality" if the coming peace settlement were to be worth while. Five bases for the League he laid down in this address: " First, the impartial justice meted out must involve no discrimination between those to whom we wish to be just and those to whom we do not wish to be just. It must be a justice that plays no favorites and knows no standard but the equal rights of the peoples concerned; "Second, no special or separate interest of any single nation or any group of nations can be made the basis of any part of the settlement which is not consistent with the common interest of all; "Third, there can be no leagues or alliances or special covenants and understandings within the general and common family of the League of Nations. "Fourth, and more specifically, there be can no special, selfish economic combinations within the league and no employment of any form of economic boycott or exclusion except as the power of economic penalty by exclusion from une markets of the world may be vested in the League of Nations itself as a means of discipline and control; "Fifth, all international agreements and treaties of every kind must be made known in their entirety to the rest of the world." While the President thus put himself the in forefront of the movement to establish a League of Nations, he was not alone among the statesmen of the world in this position. Prominent among other leaders was General Smuts of the Union of South Africa whose draft of a league was actually made the basis of discussion in the negotiations at Paris. Viscount Grey and Lord Robert Cecil in England both pronounced in favor of the idea, the latter being appointed by the British Premier to have charge of the "League of Nations Department" of the British Government's staff at the Peace Conference. Premier Clemenceau exhibited no enthusiasm for the idea from the first, although Léon Bourgeois, a supporter of the League, was placed in charge of the matter at the Peace Conference. After the President had arrived in Paris there was considerable discussion as to whether the terms of peace should not first be settled and then the covenant of the League of Nations be drafted. Most of the European statesmen took this view, but the President was obdurate in demanding that the first business of the Peace Conference should be the drafting of a constitution of a League of Nations. In this he carried his point and on Jan. 18, 1918, at the first session of the Conference it was announced that the first business would be the adoption of a covenant of a league. On Feb. 14, On Feb. 14, 1919, just before sailing for the United States for the United to transact necessary business, essary business, the President read the Covenant of the Covenant of the League of Nations to the Peace Confer- Peace Conference which adopted it. The preamble is as follows:-"In orlowa: "In order to promote international co-operation and onalno-operato secure international peace and international peace and security by the acceptance of obligations cance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription prescription of open, just and honorable relations beabis relations between nations, by the firm establishrm establishment of the understandings of interna- International law as the actual rule of conduct conduct among governments, and by the mainmaintenance of justice and scrupulous repulous respect for all treaty obligations in tha ns in the dealings of organized peoples with ona another, les with one the Powers signatory to this atory to this covenant adopt this Constitution of the Constitution of the League of Nations." The document then establishes an Exstablishes an Executive Council and a permanent Secrermanent Secretariat to be established at the seat of the seat of the League, provides for the arbitration of ation of matters that are considered by the by the parties concerned to be proper subjects bjects for arbitration, and also provides that nations that shall not go to war without a car without a previous resort to the arbitration of the ation of the League. In case of any_assault by one ult by one of the members of the League against de against any other member all the nations signaons signatory to the Covenant are to proceed by proceed by what means they choose to punish the to punish the offender. "Mandates" for the former the former German colonies are to be assigned by be assigned by the executive council, and all treaties and all treaties are to be deposited with the Secretarywith the Secretary- General of the League. Perhaps the Perhaps the most important article in the Covenant in the Covenant and certainly the one most discussed was Article most discussed was X which reads as follows: follows: "The high contracting parties shall g parties shall undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the terrion the territorial integrity and existing political inang political independence of all states members of the League embers of the . In case of any such aggression ession or in case of any threat or danger of r of such aggression the Executive Council shall advise upon the means by which the obligation shall be fulfilled." This first draft of the Covenant encountered severe criticism especially in the United States, where many Senators held that a distinct recognition of the the Monroe Doctrine should have been incorporated in the document: that the the League would involve us in many petty many wars and that it was placing the sovereignty over Americans in the hands of foreigners. The Japanese demanded an amendment in favor of racial equality, while the French wished a permanent international force to protect them from German aggression. The opponents of the League under the leadership of Senator Lodge secured the signatures of thirty-nine of the Senate's members to a document declaring that they would not ratify the Covenant of the League in its present form. Influenced by these criticisms the President returned to Paris and changes were made in the wording of the Constitution of the League, intended to safeguard the Monroe Doctrine, to remove domestic questions from the jurisdiction of the League, to permit nations to withdraw from the League upon two years' notice "providing it had fulfilled its obligations," and to require the decision of the League Council to be unanimous. This revised draft of the Covenant was adopted by a plenary session of the Peace Council on April 28, 1919, following an explanatory address by President Wilson. The decision was made that the seat of the League was to be Geneva, Switzerland, rather than Brussels which wished the honor. Sir (James) Eric Drummond, private secretary to Arthur J. Balfour, British Foreign Secretary, was named as the first Secretary-General of the League of Nations. Although many of the European statesmen desired the League of Nations Covenant to be entirely apart from the terms of the Peace Treaty, President Wilson again insisted that it be an integral part of the Treaty. This angered many members of the United States Senate who claimed that the President was attempting to force the Senate to agree to the Covenant whether it approved of its terms or not, the only alternative given it being that of rejecting the entire Peace Treaty and continuing in a state of war with Germany. On July 10, 1919, President Wilson formally sent the Treaty with the Covenant embodied in it to the Senate for its ratification. By reason of the slight majority of the Republicans in that body they were able to organize the Foreign the docu- Relations Committee to which ment was referred. Both in the Committee and on the floor of the Senate serious opposition to both Treaty and League appeared and numerous requests were made by the Senators of the President for papers and reports of the Peace Conference. While the President refused most of these requests he finally agreed to meet the entire Foreign Relations Committee at the White House on August 19th and answer such questions as far as he could. The meeting was held and the Chief Executive made known his willingness to agree to such "interpretive reservations" which should not change in any essential manner the League or the Treaty, but he expressed opposition to any textual amendments or such reservations as would impair the structure of the League. While these negotiations were proceeding between the executive and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, foreign countries were acting. Great Britain was the first of the great nations to ratify both the League and the Treaty, the resolution becoming law July 31, 1919. France followed by ratification on Aug. 20th, Belgium on Aug. 8th. Spain was among the first of the neutral states to declare their adhesion to the League, taking action to that effect on Aug. 16th. Switzerland agreed to submit the whole matter to a referendum of her people which was done and the League finally accepted, but not without considerable opposition. Chile was among the first of the American nations to join the League and the indications were that nearly all the South American nations would do so. These proceedings of other nations did not influence the United States, the one country which was expected to hail the League as the achievement of its ideals. After an address by Senator Knox of Pennsylvania, Secretary of State under the Taft administration, in which he bitterly denounced both League and L Treaty the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on Sept. 10, 1919, made their report recommending 38 textual amendments and four reservations to the Treaty and Covenant. As far as the League was concerned the Committee recommended an amendment giving the United States an equal vote with that of any other nation in the League. This was aimed at Great Britain, which nation had five votes counting those of her selfgoverning colonies. Another amendment would give to the United States the unconditional right of withdrawal from the League; a reservation was suggested by the Committee which would completely invalidate Article X; still another reservation made the United States sole judge of what was a domestic issue and over what matters the League had jurisdiction. President Wilson seeing the hopelessness of the situation in the Senate determined to appeal to the country in a series of speeches and endeavor to arouse public sentiment to bring pressure on the recalcitrant Senators. During September he journeyed to the Pacific Coast making speeches explaining and defending the League. While given a courteous hearing everywhere and an enthusiastic reception by most of his audiences, opin ions differ as to whether the people showed their sympathy with him in his France, I France battle for the League. Certainly the Ambascad Ambassador Senate was in no more pliant mood than Conha for Conha hitherto. The President returned to Greece Greece, Washington a sick man, and for a time in M. Eym M. the fall was unable to take any further Ferrari Ferrari part in the controversy. The Senate durmond, ing October abandoned its effort to amend also the Covenant and the opposition centered which POR GIUM its efforts on securing the adoption of ready ready tra reservations which should be as effective. cil, so cil, so th These reservations, numbering fourteen enormous amorinotus and covering the main objections of the by the by the L opposition to the League, were drawn up Practically Practically by the Foreign Relations Committee and acted acted was were brought to a vote in the Senate on anese, anese, and Nov. 19, 1919, and were defeated by a Basin Basin Con vote of 55 to 39, the Democrats and the don as don as the "Irreconcilables" alike voting for their general general, w rejection, the first because the reservaing ing months tions as President Wilson had announced tant tant decis completely nullified the League, and the preme Co second group because they were opposed perfunctory to ratification under any conditions. A sacted vote was then taken on unconditional Many Mang the ratification which was defeated by a vote tance tance w of 53 to 38, whereas an affirmative vote body if body if of two-thirds of the entire body was re- States States she quired to obtain a ratification. Even orable orable to after this first rejection of the League however however, negotiations continued to attempt to seposition position t cure ratification. More sweeping reser- Republican Republican vations than the previous fourteen were bility bility of agreed upon in order to secure the votes Covenant. Covenant. of the "Irreconcilables" if possible. The Le The resolution of ratification with these Geneva Geneva in fifteen reservations was brought to a 1920. 1920. vote on March 19, 1920, and received 57 votes in its favor to 37 against, thus TRAMT lacking the necessary two-thirds by Warwickshire Warwicksh wa seven votes. The Senate, immediately modern modern er thereafter passed a resolution notifying only since only since the President that they refused their waters in 1784. waters in consent to the Treaty and the League. While the United States thus rejected born in born in L the League, other nations at the same In 1835 In 1885 st time were announcing their acceptance sent by sant by th of it. By the first of January, 1920, Greece, Greece, wh Japan and Italy had ratified, thus comscapes in scapes in A pleting the list of all the great powers the islands the islands on the allied side. Among the neutrals at the at the Ros Spain, Argentina, Uruguay, Chile and later later year Persia had responded favorably to the made made him invitation given to join the League. By trated trated book the terms of the Covenant the time for ings. ings. Of t the League's first meeting had arrived, his " his "S accordingly President Wilson issued a ( 1842); (1 call for the session to be held in Paris on ( 1846); (1846): Jan. 16, 1920. This honor was accorded (1851); (1851) to the President of the United States be- Painter cause of his efforts for the League and sica " ( in spite of the fact that his country had ( 1861). (1861 not ratified. On the 16th of January the lowed Lowed League held its first meeting, there be- Stories, " Storie ing present nine representatives of the able able different nations: Léon Bourgeois for , Lord Curzon for Great Britain, for Great Britain, Matsui for Japan, M. da Japan, M. da for Brazil, Premier Venizelos for emier Venizelos for , Ambassador de Leon for Spain, de Leon for Spain, Hymans for Belgium, and Signor Belgium, and Signor for Italy. Sir Eric Drum- Sir Eric Drumthe Secretary of the League, was of the League, was present. Most of the business of the business was before the body had been althe body had boon altransacted by the Supreme Counthe Supreme Counthat comparatively few of the ratively few of the tasks that were to be handled were to be handled League were actually before it. actually before it. all the real business transreal business transwas to name the English, Japthe English, Japand Belgian members of the Sarre members of the Sarre Commission and to designate Lonto designate Lonthe next meeting place. This, ip place. This, ip , was the rule during the succeedring the succeedmonths. The real tasks and imporasks and impordecisions were handled by the Sud by the Su- Council of the Allies and only a Allies and only a amount of business tranof business tranby the League of Nations Council. of Nations Council. thought more power and imporore power and imporwould be assigned to this latter Assigned to this latter the fall elections in the United lections in the United should return a Senate more fav- Senate more favto the League. The Republicans, The Republicans, , made an issue out of their opue out of their opto the Covenant, and the great and the great victory eliminated any possiated any possiof a ratification of the League of the League The League held its second session in s second session in in November and December, and December,