Lippmann

Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)

WALTER, an American writer; born in New York, in 1889. He Lättlo bject graduated from Harvard in 1910, and day be afterward carried post-graduate on liquefa studies in philosophy. From 1914 to ich h 1917 he was assistant editor of the "New Republic," and in the latter year he bediox am came an adviser of the War Department at Washington. He contributed widely to periodicals on social and political subinclude "A jects. His published writings inclu Preface to Politics" (1913); "Drift and Mastery" (1914); "The Stakes of Diplomacy" (1915). SIR THOMAS LIPTON, JOHN- STONE, a British sportsman; born in Glasgow, of Irish parents. He was proprietor of large tea estates in Ceylon; owned a refrigerator car plant in the United States; and was president of a pork packing company in Chicago. He was, however, best known as the owner yachts "Shamrock I." of the English English and "Shamrock II.", with which vessels with the to Ameri he unsuccessfully competed for the in 1899 and 1901. AMERICA'S CUP (q. v.) with the Ameri- 's Jubilee, in 1897, can yacht "Columbia" in 1899 and 1901. issued an appeal During Queen Victoria's Jubilee, in 1897, dinners for the the Princess of Wales issued an appeal London on some for money to provide dinners for the ties. To this fund poorest of the poor in London on some 0,000. The result one day of the festivities. To this fund "The Alexandra Lipton contributed $100,000. The result which is to proof this movement was "The Alexandra er London where Trust," the purpose of which is to prowholesome, wellvide restaurants all over London where e. To this object working people may buy wholesome, well- 1898, and promcooked food at cost price. To this object. In consideration Lipton gave $500,000 in 1898, and promknighted in 1898. ised more when needed. In consideration 1 Ulster Yacht of his liberality he was knighted in 1898. tested for the Representing the Royal Ulster Yacht 1901, 1908, and Club, Sir Thomas contested for the America's Cup in 1899, 1901, 1903, and ASES. It was again in July, 1920. certain gases LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. It was der any condiformerly believed that certain gases teenth to the could not be liquefied under any condicustomary to tions, and from the sixteenth to the vapors" by the eighteenth century it was customary to atter could be eigh distinguish "gases" from "vapors" by the wn, however, statement that only the latter could be fied provided liquefied. It is now known, however, are and low provided that any gas can be liquefied ied d. The aarthe necessary high pressure and low was sulphur temperature can be obtained. The earouet at the liest gas to be liquefied was sulphur centory, and dioxide, by Monge and Clouet at the d bydrogen beginning of the nineteenth century, and liquid state a few years later chlorine and hydrogen Serest was chloride were reduced to the liquid state ever, until by Northmore. Little interest was his series shown in the subject however, until of gases, 1823, when Faraday ay began his series cceeded in of experiments on liquefaction of gases, hydrogen as a result of which he succeeded in carbon producing sulphur dioxide, hydrogen a liquid sulphide, cyanogen, ammonia, carbon introduce dioxide and nitrous oxide in a liquid into the form. His method was to introduce mb being materials for generating gas into the mixture. limb of a bent tube, the other limb being pressure sealed and packed in a freezing mixture. the gas On generating the gas, high pressure was produced, and at length the gas liquefied in the cold limb. Other workgazes, ers, on similar lines, were Bussy, Thigases, ren and and Natterer, but certain quefied including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and lorier ure of carbon monoxide could not be liquefied tterer, even though the enormous pressure of there 3600 atmospheres was used by Natterer, and for a time it was believed that there came existed so-called "permanent gases,' وو tical" which defied liquefaction. Then came Dres the discovery, by Andrews, of "critical" phenomena. He found that on compressing carbon dioxide in a tube at a temperature below 30.9°C, the volume diminished until, at a certain pressure, which varied with the temperature, liquefaction began. At a temperature above 30.9 ° C, however, he found that it was impossible to liquefy carbon dioxide, no matter what pressure was employed. He observed similar phenomena in the case of nitrous oxide, and concluded that for every gas there is a definite temperature above which it cannot be liquefied. This temperature he called its critical temperature. It was now clear that the failure of Natterer, and others, to liquefy certain gases was due to the fact that the temperatures used by them were above the critical temperatures and the attention of workers on the subject was turned to the production of extreme cold. In 1877 Louis Cailletet succeeded in liquefying both oxygen and carbon monoxide. He found that by compressing a gas at a low temperature and then suddenly releasing the pressure, a marked drop in temperature occurred, and it was by utilization of this fact that he and later workers succeeded in liquefying in turn all the "permanent gases." Liquid air and oxygen were produced in large quantities as a result of Dewar's experiments, and Hampson and Linde, in 1895, introduced the method of selfintensive refrigeration, in which the gas to be liquefied is continuously supplied through an apparatus in which it is cooled by expansion, and each portion of gas, after such cooling, is utilized in cooling the succeeding portion, until the cumulative effect produces liquefaction.