Literature
Literature names 24 different subjects across the 6 encyclopedias on this shelf. Each is set out below.
Literature Chinese. The literature of China is the most voluminous
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Chinese. The literature of China is the most voluminous and probably the most important of the literatures of Asia. It is also one of the oldest. In order to understand its characteristics, we must consider the vehicle of expression--the language. The Chinese language is monosyllabic and uninflectional. The position of a word in a sentence is all important. A noun changed to a different position may become a verb, or it may be altogether meaningless. With a language so incapable of variation, a literature can not be produced which possesses the qualities we look for and admire in literary works. Elegance, variety, beauty of imagery--these must all be lacking. A monotonous and wearisome language must give rise to a forced and formal literature lacking in originality and interesting in its subject matter only. Moreover, a conservative people like the Chinese, profoundly reverencing all that is old and formal, and hating innovation, must leave the impress of its own character upon its literature. In spite of these facts the Chinese are a literary and, we may say, a reading people. The only road to positions of honor is by way of competitive examinations open to all. This has tended to the diffusion of learning, and every professional man is able to read the books concerning his own profession at least. The beginning of literature in China cannot be traced. There are allusions in many early books to earlier works which have been lost or destroyed. The canonical books or classics are the most important, not on account of their literary merit, but because of the immense influence they have exerted upon the people. There are nine of these books, classified usually as the Five Classics and the Four Books. 1. BOOK OF CHANGES OR TRANSFORMATIONS. This work is highly reverenced by the Chinese, but little understood. It dates from 1150 B. C. It consists of sixty-four essays, in which a system of philosophy is mystically set forth in diagrams and linear figures. It is used by hundreds of fortune tellers and soothsayers. Confucius endeavored with indifferent success to elucidate this book. 2. THE BOOK OF HISTORY consists of the records of dynasties from the twenty-fourth century B. C. to 721 B. C. They were compiled by Confucius from records which he found at the court of Chow. Mr. Wells Williams says that this book is the "foundation of the political system of the Chinese, of their history, and their religious rites,--the basis of their tactics, music, astronomy." 3. BOOK OF ODES. This book consists of songs and ballads. Some of them are so old that they belong to a time previous to any works of which we have knowledge. As in other countries, the first literature in China took the form of poetry. The empire was divided into a number of feudal states whose various princes met the king at stated intervals to receive orders. Ballads and songs were at these times presented to the sovereign. In the time of Confucius these songs numbered about 3,000. he selected some 300 of these and arranged them in the Book of Odes. 4. THE BOOK OF RITES. This has had an almost unlimited influence. Ceremony is most dear to the Chinese as individuals and as a race, and in the performance of every domestic duty, every social rite, every religious ceremony. 5. SPRING AND AUTUMN ANNALS. This is the only one of the classics which was actually written by Confucius. It consists of a long series of the briefest possible statements of facts and occurrences covering a period of 242 years. 6. THE FOUR BOOKS were written by the pupils and followers of Confucius. Mencius (371-288 B. C.), the sage's most noted disciple, was the author of one of them. His work is more original than that of Confucius himself. The teaching of the Four Books has been summed up in one sentence, "Walk in the trodden paths." In 221 B. C. the emperor, Che-Hwang-tsi, ordered all books to be burned. In various ways copies of the classics were preserved. Portions of one of them were taken from the lips of a blind man who treasured them in his memory. The Book of History was found concealed in the wall of Confucius' house. Shortly after the death of this emperor paper was invented, and, about the close of the sixth century, the art of printing--nearly 900 years before it was known in Europe. Little printing was done for centuries, but gradually a literature grew up which, if not progressive, is at least voluminous. The catalog of the emperor's library consists of 122 volumes. Historical and geographical works abound and form the most interesting and valuable department of literature to all except the Chinese themselves. Encyclopedias and dictionaries are numerous and very complete. Fiction, poetry, and the drama are all represented in Chinese literature . They are interesting as curiosities and as throwing light upon the customs and mode of thought of this people. From a literary point of view, they have little value. The present evidences of unrest in China and the opening up of the country to foreign influences must have its effect upon literature as upon all else connected with this strange, slow, conservative, and yet intelligent people. See Confucius ; Language ; Chinese Empire
Literature Dutch. The little country of Holland was among the
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Dutch. The little country of Holland was among the first to awaken from the lethargy of the Dark Ages . Three languages, the Dutch, Flemish, and Frisic--all of the Gothic family--were spoken. The Dutch became gradually the literary language of Holland. The earliest literature consisted of the lays of minstrels and the romances of chivalry. A translation of Reynard The Fox was made in the thirteenth century, and the Bible was translated into Flemish rhyme. Toward the close of the fourteenth century, a class of wandering minstrels, called "Sprekers," arose, who later organized literary societies called Chambers of Rhetoric. These societies were very popular. They held poetic contests, produced mystery plays, were prominent in national festivals, and cultivated the art of versification. However, as many of the Sprekers were illiterate, the influence upon the language and literature was not of the best. In the fifteenth century a Dutch translation of the Bible was produced, but, except among the Sprekers, Latin remained the literary tongue in Holland as in other European countries. Didier, who took the Latin name of Erasmus, and Hugo de Grote, who took the name of Grotius, are the greatest writers of the fifteenth century. Anna Byns, called the Flemish Sappho, is the most important poet of this period. In the seventeenth century three names are worthy of note. To Hooft, historian and writer of tragedy and of lyric poetry, is due credit for the development and perfecting of the language; Vondel, the greatest poet of his time, is called the Shakespeare of Holland; Jacob Cats, writer of didactic poems, is read widely in Holland and his works have their place beside the Dutch Bible. The last part of the seventeenth century witnessed a decline in literature which continued for a full century. During this period a few writers appeared, among them Poot, who is compared with Burns, and William Van Haren, author of Friso, the only strictly epic poem in the Dutch language. During the latter part of the part of the eighteenth century, Madame Van Merken produced many long poems and tragedies, giving by her influence a new impulse to literature. Van Alphen, the Dutch poet beloved by children, belongs to this period. With the overthrow of the Dutch Republic, literature, like everything else, was revolutionized. The early years of the nineteenth century were marked by translations from many languages, for a time almost eclipsing native talent. The greatest poet of Holland, however, appeared in the midst of these adverse influences. Bilderdyk (1756-1831) was not only a poet, but he was a profound scholar, a lawyer, a physician, an astronomer, and an engineer. His published works fill more than a hundred volumes, and his poem, The Destruction of the Primitive World, is one of Holland's glories. Feith was another poet of the nineteenth century, and Vander Palm was eminent as a writer of prose. The impulse which these three writers gave to Dutch literature is still felt, and, while no genius has arisen since, numerous authors of both prose and poetry have produced admirable work. Dutch literature has been enriched by translations from many ancient and modern languages. See Netherlands ; Erasmus; Grotius The literature of the Netherlands, like the people, is earnest, religious, always simple, and often elevated and sublime. It is especially distinguished for its reflective and patriotic character, and bears the mark of that accurate study of the classic models which has formed the basis of the national education, and to which its purity of taste, naturalness, and simplicity are undoubtedly to be attributed. There exists no nation of equal population which, within the course of two or three centuries, has produced a greater number of eminent men.--Botta.
Literature Grecian. The literature of Greece has had doubtless a
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Grecian. The literature of Greece has had doubtless a greater and more far-reaching--a more pervasive--influence than that of any other nation. Little more than a characterization of the various periods is attempted in this article. The development of various forms of literature in Greece is discussed under the headings, EPIC, DRAMA, TRAGEDY, COMEDY, etc., and separate articles are given to all important literary characters. The history of ancient Greek literature is divided into three periods: I. From the earliest times to the age of Herodotus (484 B. C.). This period is marked by ballad poetry and the development of the epic, and by the greatest examples of lyric poetry and by the beginnings of philosophy. The earliest lyrics are the song of Linus, sung at the grapepicking, and the song of Bormus, sung at the corncutting. Both are songs of mourning for beautiful youths cut down by untimely death and are evidently symbolic. Sappho's songs, including the lament for Adonis; the Paeans, songs to Apollo; the ballads of the Rhapsodes; the poems of Homer and Hesiod; and, in the latter part of the period, the elegies of Solon and Simonides, and the varied writings of Pindar. The poems of Anacreon, Arion, and Ibycus belong here. The chief exponents of philosophy are the Seven Sages. Anaxagoras and Pythagoras are other names of importance. The fables of Aesop are perhaps the most important prose of this time. II. The second period embraces the time when Athens was at the height of her glory; it is the most brilliant period of Greek literature. The development of history, the drama, and of oratory mark this epoch, which closes with the downfall of Athens. Herodotus is the first and most important writer of history. Thucydides is also a noted historian. In dramatic poetry we find three great names,-Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. Aristophanes, writer of comedy, should be mentioned. Public speaking was cultivated at Athens, especially during the age of Pericles, who was himself an orator, although his speeches have not been preserved. Other important names in the line of oratory and philosophy are Demosthenes, Aeschines. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. III. The third period in Greek literature is the period of decline. It covers the time from the death of Alexander the Great, 323 B. C., to the fall of Constantinople. The seat of learning was no longer at Athens, but at Alexandria, and gradually both language and literature declined. The bucolic poets are the most important writers of this period. Theocritus is first among them. Alexandria produced many scholars and scientific discoverers. We may also mention the famous Alexandrian Library of 700,000 volumes in various languages, but especially in Greek. Philosophy still flourished at Athens. After Greece came under Roman rule many Greek writers published their works in Rome and Roman writers took the ancient Greeks as their models. After the fall of Constantinople Greek literature came to a standstill so far as productiveness was concerned. The Greeks, however, were prominent in helping to spread a knowledge of their language through Europe. The eighteenth century witnessed a revival of enthusiasm for learning and literature. It is said that at present no nation produces so much literature in proportion to its numbers as does Greece. Prose of every kind is produced, many women being particularly successful in this line. In poetry, three names are promiment: that of Panagitos Santsos in lyric poetry, of Alexander Santsos in satire, and of Alexander Rangabe, who has produced both poetry and prose of great excellence.
Literature English. An outline of the literature of England seems
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English. An outline of the literature of England seems all that is necessary in this place, since all important names are considered in separate articles. The most natural classification divides the literature into three periods, in accordance with the three periods so significant in the development of the language. The periods of Old and of Middle English must be regarded as preparatory. Modern English literature may be subdivided in many ways. The classification used in this sketch seems the most natural and convenient. A brief characterization of the periods of modern English literature may be found useful. The period of the Renaissance is marked by the revival of classical learning and by the development of English prose. The Elizabethan Age is the most brilliant in the literary history of England, and one of the most illustrious periods in all human history. Beginning with the first year of the reign of Elizabeth, different classifications terminate the period variously with the death of Elizabeth; with the death of James I; with the execution of Charles I, as is done in the following outline; or with the Restoration. The Puritan Age has been called the "Augustan Age of English divinity," from the fact that it is characterized by theological eloquence. It is sometimes called the Age of Milton. The period of the Restoration is characterized by the decline of the drama and by the influence of French style in composition. Dryden is supreme in prose and poetry. The Classical Age is marked by the supremacy of classical poetry, of which Pope is the great representative, and by the development of the essay and the rise of the novel. The Johnsonian Age takes its name from Dr. Johnson, who brings classical prose to its height. The last of the great dramatists appears. The rise of romantic poetry and the development of historical literature are other features. In the age of romanticism, romantic poetry is fully developed, while classicism is abandoned. The romantic novel and the rise of journalism are to be noted. The Victorian Age is the age of progress. The development of the natural sciences, the spread of general knowledge, and the advance of democracy are the chief forces at work. The novel is supreme in literature. Artistic poetry and polished essays are produced. Criticism and history occupy important places. English literature exceeds all others in volume. I. OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE (-1200). Beowulf. The Saxon Chronicle. Caedmon's Paraphrase of the Psalms. King Alfred. The Venerable Bede. II. MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE (1200-1485). Layamon. James I of Scotland. Orm, or Ormin. Old Ballads. Geoffrey Chaucer. Sir John Mandeville. William Langlande. John Gower. John Wycliffe. Thomas Occleve. William Caxton. John Lydgate. Paston Letters. III. MODERN ENGLISH LITERATURE (1485-). A. Period of the Renaissance (1485-1558). Sir Thomas More. Wyatt. Skelton. Udall. Howard (Earl of Surrey). B. Elizabethan Age (1558-1649). Spenser. Fletcher. Bacon. Ben Jonson. Raleigh. Massinger. Sidney. Ford. Marlowe. Herbert. Shakespeare. Herrick. Beaumont. C. Puritan Age (1649-1660). Milton. Walton. Burton. Cowley. Taylor. Bunyan. D. Period of the Restoration (1660-1700). Dryden. Butler. E. Classical Age (1700-1745). Defoe. Richardson. Swift. Fielding. Pope. Sterne. Addison. Smollett. Steele. F. Johnsonian Age (1745-1784). Johnson Hallam. Hume. Burke. Gibbon. Goldsmith. G. Age of Romanticism (1784-1837). Cowper. Moore. Burns. Scott. Byron. Shelley. Coleridge. Keats. Southey. Lamb. Wordsworth. De Quincey. Campbell. H. Victorian Age. Thackeray. Arnold. Dickens. Ruskin. Bronte. Darwin. Lytton. Huxley. Kingsley. Spencer. Eliot. Browning, Robert. Macaulay. Browning, Mrs. Carlyle. Tennyson. Morley. See Novel ; Sonnet ; Drama
Literature Italian. In Italy during the first part of the
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Italian. In Italy during the first part of the Middle Ages various dialects were spoken, but Latin was still the literary language, and the influence of Roman culture and Roman love of freedom was active in the minds of Italians. When other European nations were interested in the romances of chivalry the Italians were studying Roman law and history and Greek philosophy. Toward the close of the thirteenth century the Tuscan dialect having become well established, the Tuscan school of lyric poetry arose,-the true beginning of Italian literature . Dante is the most noted poet of this school, to which he belongs as author of the Vita Nuova; although not lyric, but epic, was the form of Dante's greatest work. Petrarch, famous for his sonnets, is the second great poet of this period. Prose is exemplified by Boccaccio in the Decameron. All three of these great writers were Florentines; for the Arno and Florence hold much the same relation to Italian literature as the Thames and London hold to English literature . Petrarch and Boccaccio were ardent students of the ancients, and Petrarch believed his works in Latin to be far superior to his sonnets. The attention paid to the dead languages was a serious hindrance to the development of literature at this time, and was perhaps responsible for the fact that, during the latter part of the fourteenth and nearly the whole of the fifteenth century, literature was at a standstill. The next step in the development of Italian literature was made by Lorenzo de Medici (1448-1492), who, himself a poet, gathered a brilliant circle about him and opened a new era in Italian poetry. Perhaps the most gifted individual of Lorenzo's circle was Poliziano, who not only wrote lyrics, but revived on the stage the tragedies of the ancients and composed and presented Orpheus, the first Italian dramatic production. The next name of importance is Ariosto, author of Orlando Furioso, a metrical romance in forty cantos. Tasso's epic poem, Jerusalem Delivered, another great work, celebrates the events of the First Crusade. Pastoral dramas, didactic poetry, satires, novels, tales, histories, and philosophy all appeared during the sixteenth century. Machiavelli was one of the first novelists. He wrote also histories and discourses on various subjects. The seventeenth century marks a second period of decline in Italian literature. Many dramatic authors appeared, though few of them equaled those of the preceding age. Histories, too, are plentiful, but do not possess any noticeable degree of merit. In the eighteenth century again followed a revival and evidence of an improved literary taste, the first result of which was seen in the theater. The Italian opera or melodrama met with great success. In comedy, Goldoni wrought almost a revolution. Tragedy, too, reached a high standard under the hand of Alfieri, who revived the national character of dramatic productions. Saul is his masterpiece. The novel developed slowly. Not until the nineteenth century was any fiction of merit produced. Little advance has been made in literature since the middle of the nineteenth century. The present tendency in poetry is toward realism. Drama and fiction, history and travel, have all received attention, but few names appear which are of importance. See Comedy ; Plautus ; Dante ; Tasso ; Boccaccio ; Petrarch
Literature French. Up to the year 1500 French literature consists
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French. Up to the year 1500 French literature consists chiefly of the poems of the trouveres and the troubadours, to which separate articles are given. We find the beginnings of French prose in the chronicles of this period, those of Froissart being the most important. The period of the Renaissance and Reformation is the Golden Age of French literature. The chief influences at work were ancient learning, religion, and the monarchy of Louis XIV . Rabelais, a learned scholar, but the "great jester of France," as Lord Bacon calls him, may be regarded as typical of the Renaissance; Calvin, of the Reformation. The intellectual awakening aroused in France a spirit of inquiry which soon led to skepticism. Montaigne stands foremost among the skeptics and is of note as the earliest philosophical writer, while Descartes is another name prominent in the line of philosophical inquiry. The sixteenth century presents the names of Ronsard and Malherbe in poetry, and of J. de Balzac in prose, whose writings exemplify the light literature of this period. In the seventeenth century dramatic literature becomes of first importance, with the great names of Corneille, Moliere, and Racine. La Fontaine stands high as a writer of narrative poetry; Boileau wrote satires; Fenelon and Madame de La Fayette, romances; Rochefoucauld, moral philosophy; and Madame de Sevigne is noted for her brilliant letters. The third period of French literature covers the time from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the present. It is marked by skepticism, a taste for the modern in literature, and political unrest, culminating in the French Revolution . The dominant influence during the first part of the period was the spirit of skepticism. Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Buffon are the four noted writers of this time. During the Revolutionary period, we find in literature the names of Bernardin St. Pierre, Madame de Stael, and Chateaubriand. Since the close of the Revolution France has produced writers in every department of literature. The greatest name is perhaps that of Victor Hugo, who excelled in poetry, drama, and as a novelist. Dumas, father and son, and Sardou are other well known dramatists. In fiction Hugo, Dumas, Honore' de Balzac, George Sand, Sandeau, and others appear to have taken as a model the novels of Sir Walter Scott. This group has been followed by many later writers of almost equal excellence. A few poets have appeared also, as well as historians, critics, and miscellaneous writers; but drama and fiction are the lines in which the French genius of the nineteenth century has expressed itself. The chief characteristics of French literature are invention, lightness and delicacy of touch, and clearness of style. Goethe says: The French do not deny their general character in their style. They are of a social nature, and so never forget the public they address; they try to be clear to convince the reader, and charming to please him. See Renaissance ; Reformation ; Froissart ; Rabelais ; Calvin ; Corneille ; Racine ; Moliere ; La Fontaine ; Fenelon ; Rochefoucauld; Voltaire ; Villon ; Montesquieu ; Buffon ; Rousseau ; Hugo ; Dumas ; Balzac ; Dudevant; De Stael
Literature German. German poetry has had two periods in which
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German. German poetry has had two periods in which it has attained special excellence. The first extends from the beginning of the twelfth century to the middle of the thirteenth. The other from the middle of the eighteenth through the first quarter of the nineteenth. To the first of these periods belong the famous Nibelungen Lied--the great folkepic of Germany--the epic of Gudrun, and the songs of the Minnesingers. The songs and ballads composing the Nibelungen Lied belong to a much earlier period, but were first collected and arranged in definite form during the twelfth century. Beside the Nibelungen Lied, only one poem, a fragment of a heroic song, called Hildebrand's Lied, has come down to us from earlier times. By the middle of the thirteenth century, the poetry of the Minnesingers began to decline. By almost imperceptible gradations, it shades into the more formal, but less beautiful, poetry of the Meistersingers, which reached its height in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The development of the drama began as early as the thirteenth century with the mysteries and miracle plays so popular throughout Europe. The important work in prose up to the time of Luther was done by monks, among whom the names of Tauler and Thomas a Kempis are to be noted. The foundation of universities and the invention of printing prepared the way for the German Reformation, which, with Martin Luther and his translation of the Bible, marks the beginning of what may be called the second period of German literature . Next to Luther himself, Melancthon had, probably, the greatest influence upon the literature of this time. In poetry the name of Hans Sachs is prominent, but the best poetry of the period is found in the hymns of Luther and others which, through the influence of the great reformer, came into daily use among the people. Paul Fleming is another name worthy of note as a poet of this period. He wrote hymns notable for sincerity of feeling and simplicity of style. The third period of German literature begins with the beginning of the eighteenth century and includes, with the exception of Luther, the names of the most famous men of the nation. The departments in which the greatest excellence has been attained are philosophy, the drama, and poetry. Separate articles are given to the philosophers, Kant, Fichte, Schopenhauer, Hegel, Schelling; to the great dramatists, Schiller, Lessing and Goethe; and to the more important among the other poets. Schiller, and Goethe are the greatest names among poets. Heine is noted especially for his lyrics; Klopstock for his epic, the Messias; Wieland, Herder, the Schlegels, Arndt, Jean Paul, and Uhland are also important in this second "period of bloom" of German poetry. Goethe, Schiller, and Lessing wrote prose as well as poetry. Lessing, Gottsched, and the Schlegels were influential as critics. In the line of fiction, of history, and in miscellaneous writings, long lists of names appear which go to make up a literature which does not fall short when ranked with the greatest in the world.
Literature American. American literature is divided for convenience into three
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American. American literature is divided for convenience into three periods: the Colonial period, the Revolutionary period, and the period of the Republic. As a matter of fact, all that precedes the nineteenth century must be looked upon as preparatory. A few names of importance appear, Benjamin Franklin's being the greatest. Cotton Mather and Jonathan Edwards were eminent divines who wrote on religious subjects. Barlow and Freneau were poets; Hamilton, Washington, and Jefferson may also be named as writers of influence. With the nineteenth century and Washington Irving, American literature really begins. James Fenimore Cooper produced the first novel and William Cullen Bryant is the first great poet. Halleck, Drake, and N. P. Willis are other poets who belong to this first group of American authors, sometimes classed as the Knickerbocker writers, because they all wrote for the Knickerbocker Magazine. Two important movements began to influence the literature of America at about this time. The transcendental movement, affecting modes of thought, religion, and criticism; and the anti-slavery movement, striking deeper into the hearts and consciences of the people. The influence of these movements may be traced in both poetry and prose. Following Bryant, our first great poet, are the other New England poets, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier, and Emerson; the Southern poets, Poe and Lanier; and the Metropolitan writers, so-called because they wrote from the great centers of life. Among these are Aldrich, Stedman, Gilder, Stoddard, Curtis, Warner, Whitman, Field, and others. Other poets whom it is difficult to classify are Riley, Edith Thomas, Joaquin Miller, and John James Pratt. Among prose writers we find Emerson, Holmes, and Lowell as critics and essayists; Bancroft, Motley, and Prescott among historians; Phillips, Clay, Calhoun, Webster, and Lincoln as orators. Thoreau and Burroughs are the first of a long list who have produced nature studies of interest and literary merit. Humor, too, has been well represented by Mark Twain , Josh Billings , Charles Brown, and Petroleum V. Nasby. Since about 1870 the novel has been supreme in American literature. The interest in the reading and the writing of fiction has doubtless weakened literature so far as other lines are concerned. Soon after the Civil War the school of realism, as it is called, arose, with Howells and James as its founders. Toward the end of the century, Crawford, Mary Johnstone, Winston Churchill, and others led a reaction in favor of the romantic tale and the historical novel. The problem novel, too, has been produced, though it has not been as popular here as in England. A taste for the short story and the justification of such taste by the production of artistic examples, has been a recent feature in literature. Many names may be mentioned in this field. Mary Wilkins, Frank Stockton, Edward Everett Hale, and Margaret Deland are among the best short story writers. The reader is referred to separate articles on the individual authors mentioned in this article and on many other American writers whose names have been omitted necessarily from this sketch.
Literature Persian. Persia has had three periods of intellectual prosperity
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Persian. Persia has had three periods of intellectual prosperity when literature has advanced with rapidity and brilliancy, only to die out again under the stress of changing political conditions. 1. Ancient Persian literature , or the literature of the Zendic period as it may be called, includes the sacred writings of Persia, the Zendavesta, dating from about the sixth century B. C. This work contains the doctrines of Zoroaster. Ancient inscriptions, comprising some thousand lines of cuneiform texts carved on the great rock at Behistun or on tablets, belong to this period. The inscription at Behistun tells of Darius, the king, and the greatness of his empire. Doubtless songs and mythological stories and perhaps chronicles existed at this time, but of such no record remains. The literature of this period was destroyed or scattered at the time of Alexander's conquest. 2. The second period of Persian literature is called the Pahlavi period, from the dialect spoken at that time. It is also known as middle Persian literature. Under the Sasanian kings of the third century, the remnants of the Zendavesta were collected and systematized, and many new works, all of a religious character and filled with the spirit of Zoroastrianism, were produced. This was in turn checked and well nigh destroyed by the Arabian invasion of the seventh century. 3. Modern Persian literature took its rise in the latter part of the ninth century. Poetry is the most important department of this period, the rich Persian tongue seeming to be unusually adaptable to this form of composition. Even sciences-grammar, natural history, medicine-are all expounded in verse. The earliest poet of note is Ferdusi, author of the Shah Nameh . Omar Khayyam , called the "King of the Wise," lived in the eleventh century. He denounced intolerance and hypocrisy. Hafis of the fourteenth century is the greatest of Persian lyric poets. His poems display great variety and are full of grace and beauty. These are the greatest names of the greatest period of Persian literature. The Persians possess works on history,-philosophy, geography, rhetoric, mathematics, and astronomy. Celebrated works of modern European nations have been translated into the Persian language. The ideal book in Persia is still a manuscript, written beautifully on fine, silky paper with illuminated margins. Such books are often powdered with gold dust and perfumed with costly essence. In the nineteenth century the drama began to attract attention in connection with the Mohammedan religion. The national play of Tazieh, corresponding to the Passion Play in many respects, is presented regularly. Several poets of the nineteenth century have shown such marked merit that it has been prophesied that another period of revival, and perhaps of brilliancy, is yet to come to the land of Persia. See Zoroaster ; Omar Khayyam
Literature Roman. While Greece gives us the most important literature of antiquity
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Roman. While Greece gives us the most important literature of antiquity, that of Rome is closely associated with it and stands second in the influence it has exerted. The Romans were a nation of physical rather than intellectual energy. They were less imaginative, less refined, than their Greek neighbors; we find, therefore, that literature is of later development among them and of a somewhat different character. Roman literature may be divided into three periods; first, that of its beginning and early development; second, that of its greatest power; and third, that of its decline. 1. The first period includes the time from the First Punic War to the Age of Cicero (241-74 B. C.). The Romans, like other nations, possessed songs and poetical compositions preserved by oral tradition. The first written literature, however, was in the form of history-a simple record of events without literary qualities of any sort. The poets of this period who attained any degree of excellence are few. Livius, Andronicus, and Naevius made translations from the Greek. Ennius wrote an epic, the Annals. Plautus and Terence were writers of comedy in imitation of Greek comedy. Prose seems to have been much more in accord with the Roman temperament than poetry. Fabius Pictor (219 B. C.) is the first historian of note. His subjects were the First and Second Punic Wars . The Origines of Cato was a complete history of Rome and Italy up to and including his own times. Only fragments of this work remain. Ninety of Cato's Orations are preserved. 2. The second period covers the time from the Age of Cicero to the death of Augustus, and to it belong the most illustrious names of Roman literature. The Age of Cicero is named for Rome's greatest orator, whose orations are still regarded as models of Latin prose. As the historians of this period, appear the names of Caesar and of Sallust, of Livy, of Dionysius, and of Diodorus. The three great Roman poets are Horace, Virgil, and Ovid. Others are Lucretius, the Epicurean, and Catullus, the writer of lyric poetry. 3. With the death of Augustus the decline of literature began. A few names only are of importance. Plutarch, the author of the famous Lives of celebrated Greeks and Romans, which has been called a textbook of heroism; Tacitus, the historian; and Pliny, the scientist, belong to this period. Among philosophers are Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. The reader is referred to articles on all important names mentioned in connection with Roman literature. See Language ; Comedy
Literature Arabian. During the Dark Ages
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Arabian. During the Dark Ages , that period from the sixth to the eleventh century when European learning was almost extinct, literature in Arabia was developing in a maner which seems little short of marvelous. Two centuries before the time of Mahomet the Arabians has produced poetry of remarkable vigor and beauty. Their laws of meter and rhythm were simple, yet produced most artistic results. Poems of love and war, odes and songs, eulogies of distinguished men, elegies, and didactic poems are plentiful. Poetical contests were held at Mecca and at Okad, and every encouragement was given to the cultivation of the poetic art. The first prose of any importance is that of the Koran, but it is far inferior to Arabian poetry. It is irregular, possesses a sort of rhythm which seems unsuitable rather than pleasing, and is often ornate. The eighth and ninth centuries were rather less favorable to poetry than those which preceded, owing to civil dissensions, but as the Arabians came into contact with Persia and Greece a new and brilliant school of poetry developed. In the eleventh century, through the intercourse which the Crusades established with the East, and that between the troubadours and the Moors in Spain, the learning which the Arabians had collected and cultivated began to affect the progress of literature in Europe. Mr. William Gifford Palgrave says: To the Arabians, directly and indirectly, we owe the revival of learning and philosophy in western Europe, and the first awakening of the critical and inquiring spirit that has in great measure rescued Europe from the lethargy of monkish ignorance and ecclesiastical bigotry; to them also, at least indirectly and by deduction, are due most of the useful arts and practical inventions laboriously perfected by later nations. Widespread as was the empire of the Arab sword, it has been less extended and less durable than the empire of the Arab mind. Prose works were produced, however, modeled more or less closely after the style of the Koran. The Arabians delighted in romances and have many novels, often biographical in form. Their great work of fiction is The Arabian Nights' Entertainments which is known the world over. History seems to be beyond the power of the Arab mind. For several centuries no literature worthy of note has been produced in Arabic. See Troubadours ; Koran ; Arabian Nights'; Arabia ; Mohammed
Literature Egyptian. Egyptian literature consists wholly of inscriptions on monuments
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Egyptian. Egyptian literature consists wholly of inscriptions on monuments, and of manuscripts written on papyrus, found in mummy cases and in the ruins of temples. The discoveries of the last century have been extensive in this line, and scholars, by patient labor and skillful guessing, have interpreted many of these ancient works. To any except the enthusiastic Egyptologist, however, they are somewhat disappointing. They seem hardly more than a jumble of disjointed sentences arranged without regard for system. The inscriptions on monuments and temples are quite uniform in character and devoid of interest except to the scholar. The papyri are of more importance. They are: 1. RELIGIOUS WRITINGS. Among these the Ritual or Book of the Dead is of first importance. Many copies of this book have been found in tombs. Evidently it was intended as a guide for the soul in its journey to the "Hall of Judgment." These manuscripts are beautiful in execution, but are full of discrepancies and errors of copyists. The Book of the Lower Hemisphere is of similar character. A few hymns have been found which display some little literary style. 2. HISTORICAL WRITINGS. The histories are not of great value. They are devoted usually to the praises of some ruler. 3. LETTERS. Many of these are of great interest for the light they throw on Egyptian life. 4. FICTION. The two most important works are The Tale of Two Brothers and The Romance of Setna. 5. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 6. EPICS. The epics are perhaps the most important of all from a literary point of view. There are two, Pentaur and Mohan, which have been called respectively the Egyptian Iliad and the Egyptian Odyssey. 7. FABLES AND SATIRICAL WRITINGS. In these all classes are caricatured, not even the kings escaping. As to modern Egyptian literature, little can be said. An Arabic university at Cairo has been for many years the chief seat of learning. Numerous schools existed during the eighteenth century, but European domination has checked the diffusion of knowledge. Arabic is the literary language. Dialects have greatly affected the pure Arabic, however, and the language of newspapers and periodicals is a mixture by no means of a literary character. See Book Of The Dead ; Mythology
Literature Jewish. The ancient literature of the Jews is found
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Jewish. The ancient literature of the Jews is found in the books of the Old Testament and in what are called the rabbinical writings. Written in the Hebrew language, the Old Testament has been translated into every known tongue and has had a greater influence than that of any other book. Monotheism, the worship of one supreme being, is the fundamental idea of Hebrew literature. The first five books, called commonly the Pentateuch, include the accounts of the origin of the world and the history of the beginning of Israel as a nation and its establishment in the Holy Land . The historical books include also Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah. The prophetic books are usually classified as the Greater Prophets, including Isaiah, Jeremiah, to whom is credited the book called by his name and the book of Lamentations, Ezekiel and Daniel, and the Lesser Prophets, including Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. The poetical books include the Proverbs of Solomon and Ecclesiastes, which are didactic, the book of Job, which is largely dramatic, the Song of Solomon, a collection of love songs, the pastoral poem of Ruth, the book of Esther, and above all the Psalms of David. Poetry, especially lyrics, are found in many of the historical and prophetic books. Moses' hymn after the crossing of the Red Sea and the elegies of Lamentations are instances. Rabbinical literature includes the writings of the rabbis or teachers of the Jews in the later period. The Talmud is a collection of traditions illustrating laws and usages. The most brilliant period of modern Jewish literature is that of Moorish Spain. Here the Jews cultivated science and literature. Astronomy, history, poetry, music, philosophy,-all received attention, and in all the Spanish Jews excelled. Later, in many different countries, Jews have shown intellectual superiority, especially in Germany, where Moses Mendelssohn became distinguished as a philosopher; Heine as a poet; and Auerbach as a novelist. The two Disraelis and Zangwill in England and Emma Lazarus in America are also well known Jewish writers. See Jews ; Cabala ; Talmud ; Mendelssohn ; Heine ; Auerbach ; Zangwill ; Disraeli ; Lazarus; Emma
Literature Babylonian and Assyrian
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Babylonian and Assyrian. Since Babylonia and Assyria form geographically one country, their history has, naturally enough, been closely connected; and it is convenient to consider their literatures together, especially as the literature of both nations is preserved in the cuneiform inscription on tablets which took the place of books. As only comparatively few of these inscriptions have been translated, little is known of the literature of these countries. The Babylonians possessed, it is evident, a mass of legends concerning the centuries that elapsed before their genuine history begins. Astronomy seems to have been regarded as the subject of most importance. The chief astronomical work, called the Illumination of Bel, fills seventy tablets. It is almost entirely of an astrological nature, the astronomer's chief duties being the casting of horoscopes and foretelling the weather. Other tablets reveal hymns to the gods, some of them strikingly like the Hebrew, formulae for the use of magicians, and mythological poems. Of the latter The Deluge and The Descent of Istar into Hades may be mentioned. These two poems form part of the great Babylonian epic which is written in praise of the sun god. It consists of twelve books, each containing some legend appropriate to one of the signs of the zodiac. The Assyrians were long content to translate Babylonian writings. When they began original work it was in imitation of that done by their neighbors. Their libraries were numerous, every large city possessing at least one. In the ruins of the Palace of Sardanapalus, who reigned 650 years before Christ, an enormous number of cuneiform tablets have been found. Some of these are very small, the inscriptions being in such fine characters as to necessitate the use of a microscope in deciphering them. Among them are epics, and chronological historical, and legal works. The Assyrians possessed also grammars, rhetorics, and dictionaries, which have proved of great value in the study of comparative philology. The work of deciphering and translating the cuneiform inscriptions is necessarily slow. Scholars are engaged upon it continually, and in time the literature of these ancient nations will be available as a whole.
Literature Japanese. In considering the literature of Japan
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Japanese. In considering the literature of Japan, the first thing noticeable is the difference between the spoken and written language. In ancient times--that is, during the first centuries when a written language existed-the two were identical. But the literature of China, which was widely studied in court circles of Japan, exerted a marked influence. Chinese words were introduced and native productions were written in the Chinese language. The result was that the written language came to consist of characters borrowed from the Chinese, supplemented to a greater or less extent by a native alphabet consisting of forty-seven indivisible syllables. An effort is being made to do away with the Chinese characters and thus make the spoken and written languages again identical. The Japanese have produced all forms of literature. The classes in which they have done the most important work are those of history, geography, poetry, drama, and fiction. Up to the fourteenth century literature was confined wholly to the court circle. Kojiki, a book of historical traditions and mythology dating from the eighth century, and Nihonghi, of a little later date, are the oldest novels extant. The fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries may be looked upon as Japan's dark ages . Learning was kept alive by a few priests only. The seventeenth century marks the beginning of the modern period. As a nation the Japanese are careful to make and preserve records. Of later historical works, The History of Great Japan, composed in the seventeenth century, is the standard. Japanese fiction is more imaginative and more true to nature than that of other oriental nations. It is an interesting fact that the best literary work of the best ages has been done by women. The people are fond of reading and especially of poetry. In the last century an immense number of books have been published, including many old manuscripts which have appeared in modern form. See Japan
Literature Russian. The earliest Russian writers were ecclesiastics
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Russian. The earliest Russian writers were ecclesiastics, the most noted of whom is the monk, Nestor. He produced the first Russian chronicle in the twelfth century. At this time traditions and folk-lore, some specimens of which have been preserved, existed to quite an extent. The Mongol invasion put a check upon national life and literature, the books of the church were revised by Nihon, and numerous sects sprang up through the country. Shortly foreign influences began to be felt, many scholars and writers establishing themselves in Moscow. Many translations of foreign works were made, and lyric poetry and satire appeared in the Russian tongue. Lomonosoff (1712-65) is called the father of Russian literature. His influence in establishing the language, in laying down principles of grammar, and in giving form to the national poetry was of the highest importance. Sumarakoff (1718-99) produced dramas and established the Busy Bee, the earliest periodical. Toward the end of the eighteenth century French influence, which had been paramount, began to give way to that of Germany and England. Novels of middle class life became popular. Karamsin was a writer of novels and also produced a History of Russia, of important influence in the development of a pure and simple prose style. Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837) is the greatest of Russian poets. Influenced by foreign poets, he was still altogether Russian and, with a remarkable mastery of form, attained in poetry an excellence which makes his work the model of Russian poets. Since 1825 a vast number of writers have appeared of sufficient importance to give Russian literature a position in the front ranks of European national literature. Gogol represents naturalism in fiction. Turgenyeff and Tolstoi are great names of the present period. See Tolstoi ; Russia
Literature Swedish. The oldest remains of Swedish literature are in the form of Runes
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Swedish. The oldest remains of Swedish literature are in the form of Runes, indicating that legends and folk tales were common. With the introduction of Christianity the clergy became the important factor and their works follow Latin models. During the period of the Reformation a translation of the Bible was made and mystery plays appeared in Sweden as elsewhere. Messenius attempted to substitute history for legend in these plays, his efforts marking the first development in the drama. The greatest name of the period is that of Sternhjelm, who produced odes, lyrics, and didactic poetry. During the eighteenth century, French taste prevailed and French models were imitated in Sweden as elsewhere in Europe. Gustavus III, as a master of rhetoric; Dalin, who is likened to Addison; Kellgren, the lyric poet; and Leopold, the dramatist, are the most notable names of this period of formalism and slavish imitation. With the second decade of the nineteenth century, a new era dawned. Romanticism represents the reaction from French theories. The phosphorists were a school of writers representing the extreme of romanticism. In opposition to the Romanticists arose the Gothic school aiming at a national literature. To this school belong the most famous poets of Swedish literature--Geijer, Tegner, Runeberg. Fiction now received attention. Frederika Bremer and Cederborg are prominent names in this line. In the later part of the century nearly every department of literature had its able representatives. See Runes ; Tegner ; Geijer ; Runeberg ; Hedin; Lagerlof
Literature Spanish. The earliest literary work of Spain is the
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Spanish. The earliest literary work of Spain is the Poem of the Cid of the twelfth century. Following this, although somewhat later, the literature of Spain falls into two classes: that produced in court circles, usually poetry of the troubadour style; and what may be called the popular literature. The latter is of more interest than the former. Popular literature up to the middle of the sixteenth century consists of ballads, the lyrical and narrative poetry of the common people; chronicles, comprising The Chronicle of Spain and various records of persons and events; romances of chivalry; and dramas, that is, mysteries and miracle plays. About the middle of the sixteenth century, the mysteries, heretofore the only dramatic production, began to decline, and a form of drama arose, more original and more purely national than that of any other European nation except England. The names that are prominent in connection with Spanish drama are Lope de Rueda, Lope de Vega, and Calderon. In fiction we need mention only Cervantes, by far the greatest name in Spanish literature. Spanish literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries has been greatly influenced by the French. Many writers have appeared but little of importance has been produced. See Drama ; Troubadours ; Cervantes ; Don Quixote ; Cid
Literature Finnish. The Kalevala is the great monument of Finnish literature
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Finnish. The Kalevala is the great monument of Finnish literature . The poem is a national epic or folk epic. Elias Lounrot in the nineteenth century wandered through the country and took down from the lips of peasants the old popular songs, arranging and systematizing them into a single complete poem. The story is of the heroes of Kalevala, the land of happiness, and their contest with other heroes from the cold north and the land of death. The poem consists in its final edition of 22,793 lines in fifty cantos. The meter is trochaic tetrameter, the same we find in Longfellow's Hiawatha. The Kalevala has been translated into English by J. M. Crawford. During the nineteenth century the Finnish people have displayed considerable literary activity. Works on history and geography have been produced, as well as religious and moral treatises. A number of poets have written popular verses. Translations have also been made from Swedish literature . See Kalevala
Literature Danish. The first Danish author of prominence is Arreboe (1587-1637)
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Danish. The first Danish author of prominence is Arreboe (1587-1637), whose World's First Week displays learning and poetic beauty. Tycho Brahe of the same period performed a great service for science and literature. The first poet who belongs to the modern epoch is Evald (1743-1780). He produced poems beautiful in sentiment and artistic in form. He was also the author of Balder's Death, the first Danish tragedy, and of the Fishermen, a lyrical drama of power. By the beginning of the nineteenth century Germany was exerting a decided influence upon Danish literature , causing a new school of poets to appear. The greatest of this school is Oehlenschlager (1779-1856), who, besides poems, produced many romances. His chief work is Gods of the North, in which the legends of the Edda are united into one poem. Of all Denmark,s writers Hans Christian Andersen is the best known to English and American readers. His stories have been translated into many languages.
Literature Canadian. Canadian Literature includes the works not only of
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Canadian. Canadian Literature includes the works not only of authors born on Canadian soil, but also of British and French writers who have settled in Canada. The earliest literature consists of histories and discoveries. Among French writers in this line, Champlain and Charlevoix may be mentioned, and, among those who wrote in English, Hearne and Mackenzie. Many poets and writers of fiction have produced excellent work. The Anglo Canadian literature is naturally of more interest to the American student than the French-Canadian. In poetry, the names of C. G. D. Roberts, Bliss Carman, and Gilbert Parker are well known. The last named is also a novelist. Palmer Cox, author of the Brownie Books, F. B. Crofton, who wrote The Major's Big Talk Stories, and Miss M. M. Saunders, author of Beautiful Joe, are Anglo-Canadian authors. See Champlain ; Canada ; Roberts; Carman ; Parker
Literature Icelandic. The ancient literature of Scandinavia in the Old
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Icelandic. The ancient literature of Scandinavia in the Old Norse tongue has been preserved in Iceland. It consists of the Eddas, the Sagas, and the poems of the Skalds. It is discussed in separate articles under these three heads. The systematizing of these remains is due to the intelligent and painstaking labor of Icelandic scholars. No modern Icelandic works can compare in interest with these ancient writings. However, the people of Iceland are intelligent and progressive, and since the middle of the eighteenth century work has been done by them in nearly every department of literature. The most important works of European nations have been translated into the Icelandic tongue. See Edda ; Saga ; Skald
Literature Portuguese. The earliest monuments of Portuguese literature are ballads
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Portuguese. The earliest monuments of Portuguese literature are ballads, after the Provencal fashion. They were doubtless sung by wandering minstrels, and owe their origin to the French knights who founded the political independence of Portugal. The last part of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century may be called the golden age of Portuguese poetry, though not until 1524 did a poet appear whose name attained celebrity outside of the peninsula. This was Luis de Camoens (1524-1579). His epic poem, the Lusiad, constitutes the great claim of Portugal to a literature. See Camoens
Literature Norwegian. Norway possessed no independent literature until the nineteenth
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
Norwegian. Norway possessed no independent literature until the nineteenth century. Among prominent writers whose aim has been to give to Norway a national literature may be mentioned Bjornson, Jonas Lie, Boyesen, and Ibsen. See Bjornson ; Lie ; Boyesen ; Ibsen
What Has Changed in the Last Century
The 24 entries under this headword are mostly national-literature surveys, and Aiton's in 1910 wrote them as though the story were finished; every one has had more than a century added since, in most cases including the whole of modern fiction. The Chinese entry is the one that reads worst today: it holds that a monosyllabic, uninflected language must produce work in which elegance, variety and beauty of imagery must all be lacking, and that Chinese fiction, poetry and drama have little value from a literary point of view. Within a decade Hu Shi and Lu Xun had launched the vernacular baihua movement (Diary of a Madman, 1918), and the Nobel Prize in Literature went to Chinese-language writers in 2000 (Gao Xingjian) and 2012 (Mo Yan); linguists long ago abandoned the idea that a language's grammar sets a ceiling on its literature. The classics the entry lists are still the classics, but excavated bamboo and silk manuscripts, notably at Mawangdui in 1973 and Guodian in 1993, have given scholars versions of early texts centuries older than any copy Aiton's contributors could consult. The Dutch entry, likewise, was written before the single most widely read book ever composed in Dutch, Anne Frank's diary, published in 1947.
Written for this edition, 2026.