Packfong
2 of the 7 encyclopedias on this shelf carry an entry for Packfong. Both are reproduced below, so you can see where they agree and where they differ.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
a Chinese alloy of a silver-white color, consisting of copper, zinc, nickel, and iron. It was formerly used by watch makers, mathematical inothers, for a varistrument makers, and oth ety of purposes for which nickel alloys are now employed. PACKING INDUSTRY. The packing industry involves the purchase of live stock, the conversion of live stock into saleable products, and the distribution of those products. In the last fifty , an years the packing industry has come to Bruns- be one of the most important industries at in many American cities, especially in to the middle West. The history of the Entomol- industry begins in New England in the . 17th century, when quantities of pork Geol- and beef were packed in barrels for first packing house classifica- in the West was established in Cincingenerally nati in 1818, and that city remained the Professor center of the packing trade for nearly the fifty years, when Chicago surpassed it. writings The tremendous and rapid growth of of the meat packing business is due to the An- invention of the refrigerator car in 1868 1871- by William Davis of Detroit. Before North that time meat had to be killed near Labrador the point of consumption, and the packing industry was largely confined to the production of barreled beef, and the curing of pork products in winter. Even the canning of meats is a fairly recent development. In the slaughtering of animals a great many labor saving devices are used, and there is a very Montreal, fine division of labor in the enormous now stock yards and packing of post- sev- Chicago, and the other large cities. The houses animals are first stunned by a severe engineer- blow on the head, then killed and bled, to after which they are passed through the " The scalding vats and through an automatic scraper which removes the hair and ; "The Beloved bristles. As soon as the carcasses have Was been dressed and thoroughly inspected, many they are chilled by refrigeration, which is the basis of all successful meat INSTIcuring. The meat is shipped to Eastern markets in refrigerated cars owned by the packing companies, and placed in cold storage warehouses to be sold to preceding local dealers, or transferred to iced rooms in the ocean liners to be delivered in Liverpool or Glasgow. Originally little or no use was made of the so-called waste products of animals, but the packers have shown great ingenuity in their use of the by-products. In addition to the sale of the carcasses of cattle, sheep and hogs, the packing industry now includes the making of glue from the hoofs, horns and bones, leather from the hides, brushes from the hog bristles, fertilizer from the , meat scraps, soaps, tallow from the fats pepsin from the stomach, and la of the most valuable and lard, one profitable byproducts. Two grades of lard are made; steam lard, and the more refined lard. In dressing hogs, nearly 20 leaf per cent. is waste, or is used for glue or fertilizer. The most profitable part of the industry is the making of sausages. The meat used for this purpose is for the most part trimmings. The meat is chopped, mixed with potato flour and water, spiced, and stuffed by machinery marketing and into the intestines which are used for December, sausage casings after they have been thoroughly cleaned by machinery. In dressing cattle, the parts to be sold as fresh beef are allowed to cool for fortyeight hours, and then shipped. The poorer grades of beef are used for canning, which is becoming a more important division of the industry than it was formerly. In 1906 a Federal Meat Inspection Law was passed, requiring several inspections of the animals by expert veterinarians before slaughtering, and again during the processes of slaughtering and curing. Before that time there had been inadequate protection against tainted meats, though there there had been government supervision of the industry since 1891. There has been a growing tendency in the United States to concentrate the industry in the hands of a few companies, controlled by a small group of men. As early as 1890 the four largest packing concerns entered into an agreetrains and steamships. ment not to enter into competition with one another. The danger of such a monopoly of the food supply was soon evident to the government, and in 1902 an investigation of the industry was made by the Department of Justice, and the Supreme Court of the United States issued an injunction restraining the packers from conducting their business in violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. This injunction, however, did not seem to change the policy of the packers but rather forced them to resort to guarded methods of controlling the food supply of the country. In the past ten years there have been frequent Congressional Committees appointed to investigate the packing industry, and the magazines and papers have contained particles cles of countless articles on the subject. In tained. The June, 1919, the Federal Trade Commisbat. sion made a detailed report of the business conducted by "The Big Five" packers, Armour & Co., Swift & Co., Libby, Wilson and Cudahy. This report stated, among other charges, that the Big Five had secured control of the meat supply of the country, that they had unfairly used this control to keep up prices, to crush competition, and to secure special privileges from the railroads, and to demand excessive profits harmful both to the consumer and to the producer. The Commission recommended government requisition of (1) rolling stock used for the transportation of animals, (2) the principal stock yards of the country, (3) all the privately owned refrigerating cars, (4) storage facilities. In 1919, Attorney General Palmer announced that the packers had agreed to retire from all business except meat packing and distribution of dairy products, to sell all their holdings in the large public stock yards, and in stock-yard newspapers, to abandon the use of countless branch warehouses, all over the country, and to disassociate themselves from the retail meat business, which they had formerly controlled, as well as many of the chain stores. However, this agreement of the packers did not immediately result in the lowering of prices, and in 1920 a number of bills were introduced into Congress in an endeavor to restrain the monopoly of the Big Five. Chief among these were bills backed by the farmers of Kansas. The chief centers in which the packing industry is conducted in the United States are Chicago, Omaha, Milwaukee, St. Louis, Kansas City, Cincinnati, and New York. The foreign trade of the packers is greatly increasing with the improved facilities for refrigeration in The latest available figures are from the United States census of 1914, and give 1,279 slaughtering establishments, with a capital of $534,274,000 and products valued at $1,651,965,000. Chicago heads the list of centers of the industry with 24 per cent. of the business done.
The Encyclopedia of Founding (1892)
An alloy much used by the Chinese, and by them called "white copper," consists of copper 40.4, nickel 31.6, zinc 25.4, iron 2.6. See GERMAN--SILVER; WHITE ALLOYS.