Peru
Peru names 3 different subjects across the 6 encyclopedias on this shelf. Each is set out below. 1 of them is described by more than one encyclopedia.
Peru a maritime republic of South America
Described by 2 of the 6 encyclopedias.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
a maritime republic of South America, bounded on the N. by Ecuador, on the W. by the Pacific, on the S. and S. E. by Bolivia and Chile, and on the E. by Brazil; area, 695,720 square miles; pop. (1910) 4,500,000; (1920) 5,000,000; capital, Lima. Topography. The general outline resembles a triangle, the base of which is formed by the boundary line between Peru and Ecuador on the N. On the E. side of the Andes, and between the Amazon and the Purus, there is a wide and unexplored expanse of country, upon which both Peru and Brazil have claims, though the boundary is now generally regarded as marked by the Rio Javary. The country is 1,100 miles in length, 780 miles in extreme width along the N. boundary, but it is little more than 50 miles wide in the extreme S. The is lands on the Peruvian coast, though valuable, are extremely few in number, and small in extent. In the N. are the Lobos (i. e., "Seal") Islands, forming a group of three, and so called from the seals which frequent them. The largest of them, Lobos de Tierra, is 5 miles long by two miles wide, and the others, lying 30 miles S. W., are much smaller. On their E. sides they are covered by guano, and the quantity on the whole group, when it began to be exported from them, was stated to be 4,000,000 tons. The islands of Macabi and Guanope, near the Lobos, were originally supposed to contain 2,- 280,000 tons of guano; but the guano exported has very greatly exceeded that amount, and it has been calculated that there are still 750,000 tons of guano on the former and 500,000 tons on the latter. Physical Features. The surface of Peru is divided into three distinct and well defined tracts or belts, the climates of which are of every variety, from torrid heat to Arctic cold, and the productions of which range from the stunted herbage of the high mountain slopes to the oranges and citrons, the sugar canes and cottons of the luxuriant tropical valleys. These three regions are the Coast, the Sierra, and the Montana. The Sierra embraces all the mountainous region between the W. base of the maritime cordillera and the E. base of the Andes, or the East Cordillera. These ranges are, in this country, about 100 miles apart on an average, and have been estimated to cover an area of 200,000 square miles. Transverse branches connect the one range with the other, and high plateaus, fertile plains, and deep tropical valleys lie between the lofty outer barriers. The mountain chains which girdle the plain of Titicaca trend toward the N. W., and form what is called the Knot of Cuzco; the Knot comprises six minor mountain chains, and has an area thrice larger than that of Switzerland. Here the valleys enjoy an Indian climate, and are rich in tropical productions; to the N. and E. of the Knot extend luxuriant forests, while the numberless mountain slopes are covered with waving crops of wheat, barley, and other cereals, and with potatoes; and higher up extend rich pasture lands, where huge herds of vicunas and pacas feed. The valley of the Apurimac is 30 miles in average width, and extends N. W. for about 300 miles. This valley is the most popu lous region of Peru. From Cuzco proceed two chains toward the N. W.; they unite again in the Knot of Pasco. This Knot contains the table-land of Bombon, 12,300 feet above the sea-level, as well as other table-lands at a height of 14,000 feet, the highest in the Andes; otherwise, however, the physical features of the country resemble those of the vicinity of Cuzco. The valley of the river Maranon, which is upward of 300 miles in length, is narrow, deep, and nearer the equator than any other valley of the Sierra, and consequently it is the hottest portion of this region, and its vegetation is thoroughly tropical in character. The conformation of the surface of the Sierra is of the most wonderful description. After the table-lands of Tibet, those of the Peruvian Andes are the highest in the world; but, unlike those of Tibet, the table-lands of Peru are the seat of a comparatively high civilization, and are studded over with towns and villages, perched on heights exceeding in elevation the summits of the Jungfrau and the Matterhorn. Nor are such towns the mere eyries of miners who are tempted to ascend thus high in search of the precious metals; for, even at this elevation, the climate is pleasant, and wheat, maize, barley, rye, and potatoes thrive well. The city of Cuzco, situated in a region of rare beauty, and enjoying a temperate climate, is 11,380 feet above sea-level, or 2,000 feet higher than the Great St. Bernard. The climate of the Sierra, however, is not always so delightful. In general terms it may be described as mild and variable, with moderate rains. In the district of Paucartambo rain falls 300 days in the year. A country, however, of such an uneven surface, of snowcovered peaks and tropical valleys, embraces every variety of climate. The highest peaks of the country reach to upward of 22,000 feet, and many peaks in both ranges 17,000 to 20,000 feet high. In the West Cordillera and in the S. of the country are four volcanoes-Candarave, Ubinas, Omate, and Arequipa. raphy of Peru may be said to be divided into three systems-those of Lake Titicaca, the Pacific, and the Amazon. The streams that flow into Lake Titicaca are few and inconsiderable. The rivers which, having their sources in the West Cordillera, flow W. into the Pacific, are 60 in number. Commerce. The sugar production greatly increased following the outbreak of the World War. It rose from 185,000 tons in 1914 to over 820,000 tons in 1916-1917. In 1919 the acreage of sugar cane was estimated at over 1,000,000 and efforts were being made to increase the area. The total imports for 1918 amounted to £9,705,113, and the exports to £ 19,972,595 imports were coal, wheat The chief, lumber, and exports were ton, copper, petroleum and wool. In 1918 395 vessels of 790,133 tons entered in the foreign trade at Callao and 364 vessels of 717,340 tons cleared. Transportation. - The total length of railways in Peru was 1,889 miles. Of these, 1,358 miles were state railways under the control of the Peruvian Corporation. They include the Peruvian Central, from Callao and Lima to Huancayo; the Southern Railway of Peru, from Mollendo to Puno; the Paita to Piura Railway; and the Pacasmayo to Guadalupe Railway. There were about 274 telegraph offices, with about 8,000 miles of line. Three submarine telegraph cables connect Peru and Chile, and one connects Peru and the republics to the north. There is a telephone system with about 3,000 miles of wire. In 1919 there were 19 wireless stations. Education. Elementary education is compulsory, but the law is loosely enforced. In 1919 there were 2,880 primary schools with 195,689 pupils and 4,284 teachers. There were about 300 pupils in the normal schools and about 5,000 in the government high schools. The high schools are maintained by the governments in the capitals of the different departments. There is a central university at Lima called the University of San Marcos. It has about 1,500 students. There is also in Lima a school of mines and civil engineering, a national agricultural school, and a school of arts and trades. Finances. The total revenue in 1919 was £2,972,997, and the expenditure £2,680,767. The total debt on Jan. 1, 1919, was £5,802,144. are from Army and Navy. - Military service is compulsory and universal. The peace strength of the army is 11,000. The country is divided into 5 military districts, The hydrog- each furnishing a complete division. Military instruction is given in the military schools and in special schools. The navy consists of 6 vessels; 3 cruisers, 2 submarines, and one submarine destroyer. Government. - The constitution was amended in 1919. The republic is divided into departments and into provinces. The legislative power is vested in a Senate and a House of Representatives. The former is composed of depu、 ties from the provinces. The executive power is in the hands of a president, and there are two vice-presidents who take the place of the president only in case of his death or incapacity. There is a council of State consisting of 6 members, se- . The chief lected by the ministers of State, to be textile bags, confirmed by the Senate. There are industrial oils. three regional legislatures, northern, sugar, cot- central, and southern. These have authority to pass legislation for local matters, which is reviewed by the Central Congress at Lima. The Central Congress is elected every 5 years. Congress is elected for 5 years as well as the president. The Senate consists of 35 members and the Chamber of Deputies of 110. The president is elected by a popиlar vote and only in the case of his death can the Congress elect. History.-Peru, the origin of whose name is unknown, is now passing through its third historical era, and is manifesting its third phase of civilization. The present era may be said to date from the conquest of the country by the Spaniards in the early part of the 16th century; the middle era embraces the rule of the Incas; and the earliest era, about which exceedingly little is known, is that of pre-Incarial period of unknown duration, during which a nation, or nations, living in large cities flourished in the country, and had a civilization, a language, and religion differa ent, and perhaps in some cases even more advanced, than those of the Incas, who succeeded them and overran their territories. Regarding the origin of the Incas nothing definite can be said. There are no authorities on the subject save the traditions of the Indians, and these, t besides being outrageously fabulous in character, are also conflicting. It appears, however, from all the traditions, that Manco, the first Inca, first appeared on the shores of Lake Titicaca, with his wife, Mama Ocilo. He announced that he and his wife were children of the sun, and were sent by the glorious Inti (the sun) to instruct the simple tribes. He is said to have carried with him a golden wedge, or, as it is sometimes called, a wand. Wherever this wedge, on being struck on the ground, should sink into the earth and disappear forever, there it was decreed Manco should build his capital. Marching N. he came to the plain of Cuzco, where the wedge disappeared. Here he founded the city of Cuzco, became the first Inca (a name said to be derived from the Peruvian word for the sun), and founded the Peruvian race, properly so called. The Peruvian system of agriculture was brought to its highest perfection only by the prodigious labor of several centuries. Not only was the fertile soil cultivated with the utmost care, but the sandy wastes of the coast, unvisited by any rains, and but scantily watered by brooks, were rendered productive by means of an artificial system of irrigation, the most stupendous, perhaps, that the world has ever seen. Water was collected in lakes among the mountains, led down the slopes and through the sands of the coast, apparently doomed to sterility, by canals and subterranean passages constructed on a vast scale, and the ruins of which, to be seen at the present day, attest the industry, ingenuity, and admirable patience of the Peruvians. The aqueducts, which were sometimes between 400 and 500 miles in length, were in some cases tunneled through massive rocks and carried across rivers and marshes. They were constructed of large slabs of freestone, fitting so closely as to require no cement, and answering perfectly the purpose for which they were intended, for the sandy wastes were converted into productive fields and rich pasture lands, and the coast teemed with industrious inhabitants. In the valley of Santa there were once 700,000 inhabitants; there are now only 12,000; in that of Ancullama there were 30,000 individuals; there are now only 425. The edifices of Incarial times are oblong in shape and cyclopean in construction. The materials used were granite, porphyry, and other varieties of stone; but in the more rainless regions sun-dried bricks were also much used. The religion of the Peruvians, in the latter ages of the empire, was far in advance of that of most barbarous nations. They believed in a Great Spirit, the Creator of the universe, who, being a spirit, could not be represented by any image or symbol, nor be made to dwell in a temple made with hands. They also believed in the existence of the soul hereafter, and in the resurrection of the body. The after life they considered to be a condition of ease and tranquility for the good, and a continual wearisome labor, extending over ages for the wicked. But while they believed in the Creator of the world, they also believed in other deities, who were of some subordinate rank to the Great Spirit. Of these secondary gods the sun was the chief. They reverenced the sun as the source of their royal dynasty; and everywhere throughout the land altars smoked with offerings burned in his worship. The modern history of Peru has been in general one of peaceful development. It was the last of the Spanish South American possessions to become independent. Independence was obtained in 1821, and the protectorate was assumed by General San Martin. By the spring of 1822 he had compelled the surrender of the last large body of Spanish troops. The government was formed in 1823, with José de la Riva Aguero as first president. He was deposed in 1823, through the influence of Bolivar, who secured possession of the country and was appointed supreme dictator in 1824. Fighting with the Royalists continued during that year. In these the patriots were successful. Bolivar resigned in 1825, but was reappointed and came into control of the government in 1827, when he returned to Colombia. A constitution was adopted in 1828. There were no important political developments until 1865, when an alliance aga against Spain was concluded with Chile, Ecuado Ecuador, and Bolivia. The Spanish fleet bombarded Callao in 1866, but was compelled to withdraw. In 1869 Peru, with Bolivia, became allied in war against Chile. In this the Chileans were successful, and Lima and other cities were captured. A treaty of peace was concluded on Oct. 20, 1883, by the terms of which Peru annexed to Chile the province of Tarapaca, and the territories of Tacna and Arica for a term of 10 years. The people of these territories were to decide by popular vote whether to return to Peru or remain with Chile. The question has never been settled between the two countries. The recovery from the war was slow, but the financial conditions gradually readjusted themselves. During the years following there were several civil struggles, which, however, did not obtain importance. In 1912 Guillermo Billinghurst became president. His drastic efforts to reform corrupt political practices and his friendly attitude toward Chile brought about a revolt which resulted in his overthrow and exile in 1914. The outbreak of the World War produced serious economic disturb- Gothic, begun ances. The government resorted to the founded in Issuing of paper money, which caused of much further unsettled financial conditions. silk stuffs, José Pardo was elected president in 1914. In 1915 Congress passed a constitutional amendment guaranteeing religious liberty, Neutrality was preserved in the World War until Oct. 6, 1917, when diplomatic relations with G Germany were severed. The Germans made unsuccessful efforts to blow up interned steamers at Callao. In May 18, 1918, Augusto B. Leguia was elected president. A national assembly was called at Lima in the same year and fundamental changes in the constitution were adopted. In Au - painter; born gust, 1920, 4 American naval officers, at about 1446. the request of the Peruvian Government, began the reorganization of the Peruvian navy, and took charge of the Peruvian Naval Academy. Peru also requested the United States to send 30 American educators; 15 to fill administrative and university positions and 15 for secondary school work.
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
a republic of South America . It lies on the Pacific coast, approaching within three degrees of the equator. It borders with Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Bolivia, and Chile. A large triangular tract of territory on the east is in dispute between Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru. The undisputed area of Peru is about 480,000 square miles. The territory claimed increases the total to 695,733. The Cordilleras, corresponding to the coast range of North America , follow the coast about twenty miles from the ocean. The main range of the Andes lies farther inland. The country is thus divided into three physical regions, the central, or Sierra region, including the two ranges of mountains mentioned, together with their intervening tableland, the district on the east of the Andes, and a narrow region lying along the coast. CHARACTERISTICS. The mountains rise to a great height. The more prominent peaks attain an altitude of from 16,000 to 22,000 feet. The strip along the coast is rainless and arid. It has few good harbors. The headlands are for the most part abrupt and lofty. These and the islets along the coast are frequented by myriads of seabirds, terns and gulls. They hover along the coast in white flocks resembling clouds. They live on fish snatched from the sea. They nest on barren islets. Their guano, formerly found in deposits of from ten to fifty feet in thickness, has been a source of national revenue, but it is now almost exhausted. The heart of the Sierra region is a valley about 380 miles in length. It was the seat of the civilization of the Incas, the scene of Pizarro's cruel exploits. This valley has a general altitude of about 12,000 feet. It is hemmed in by ranges of lofty mountains. The line of perpetual snow lies about 16,000 feet above the sea. The region east of the Andes is clothed with tropical forests, including millions of rubber trees. PRODUCTS. Although lying between the equator and the tropic of Capricorn , Peru has every variety of climate. The lower regions produce cotton. Corn grows abundantly in valleys of moderate altitude. The tableland of the Sierras is the original home of the potato. Peru is still a land of precious metals, as Pizarro found it. The annual production of gold is not far from $2,000,000. Silver and copper are produced also. Other minerals are cinnabar, zinc, lead, borax, sulphur, arsenic, and antimony. There are extensive coal fields and veins of iron ore. The Pacific coast is rich in petroleum. AGRICULTURE. The chief agricultural productions are cotton, coffee, and sugar. Irrigation canals have been constructed which may, in time, it is hoped, convert a considerable portion of the arid coast into sugar lands. Cocoa, rice, tobacco, grapes, wheat, oranges, Indian corn, ramie, silk, quinine, and dyes are produced in considerable quantities. Rubber produced in the eastern region is shipped down the Amazon. There are large exports of wool and alpaca. GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, ETC. The republic of Peru declared its independence from Spain in 1821, but did not gain its actual freedom until 1824. The government, like that of the other South American republics, resembles that of the United States . There is a congress of two houses. The president is elected by direct vote for a term of four years. In the absence of a recent census the population is estimated at 4,600,000. About sixty per cent of the inhabitants are Indians still speaking their native language. The Roman Catholic faith is the religion of the state. The constitution of Peru forbids the public exercise of any other religion, but, as a matter of fact, Protestant churches are tolerated in the larger cities. A system of public schools has been established in the towns. In 1900 there were about 80,000 pupils enrolled. The children of white people are pretty well provided for. The Indians are still in ignorance. Government high schools are maintained in each province. A central university at Lima, the capital, is the most ancient school of any sort in the New World. Its charter, granted by Charles II, bears the date of 1551. The revenues of the government are derived chiefly from customs levied on imported cottons, woolens, furniture, provisions, wines, drugs, and machinery. Internal revenues are collected on alcohol, opium, and tobacco. Oil is a government monopoly. There are over 1,000 miles of railway and about 2,000 miles of telegraphic lines. The loftiest railroad on earth is the Oroya Railroad of Peru. The locomotive climbs to an altitude 1,400 feet higher than Pike's Peak . Gold is the basis of coinage. The national coin is the libra, corresponding in value as well as name to the English pound. STATISTICS. The following statistics are the latest to be had from trustworthy sources: Land area, square miles 695,733 Population 4-5,000,000 Lima (1908) 140,884 Callao 31,000 Arequipa 35,000 Cuzco 10,000 Iquitos 12,000 Ayacucho 14,346 Huara 7,646 Huacho 6,283 Number provinces 98 Members of state senate 51 Representatives 116 Salary of president $15,000 National revenue $15,000,000 Rice, pounds 60,000,000 Wool, pounds 8,000,000 Cotton, pounds 28,900,000 Cocoa, pounds 6,600,000 Coffee, pounds 2,216,000 Cocaine, pounds 13,000 Rubber, pounds 6,000,000 Sugar, pounds 282,000,000 Exports of sugar $7,000,000 Exports of forest products $5,000,000 Exports of metal and minerals $5.500,000 Total exports $29,000,000 Output of cotton cloth, yards 15,000,000 Silver output $6,000,000 Gold output $4,500,000 Tons of coal mined 186,000 Mineral output $17,500,000 Output of copper, pounds 60,000,000 Borates, pounds 4,800,000 Sulphur, pounds 3,600,000 Guano $1,800,000 Miles of railway 1,471 Banking capital $8,000,000 Number postoffices 416 Teachers in public schools 3,160 Pupils enrolled 156,011 See Pizarro ; Lima ; Condor ; Alpaca ; Guano ; Titicaca ; Prescott ; Incas
Peru a city in La Salle co.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
a city in La Salle co., Ill.; at the head of navigation on the Illinois river, and on the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, and the Chicago, Ottawa and Peoria railroads: 100 miles S. W. of Cincago. Here are St. Mary's Hospital, high school, public library, street railroad and electric light plants, waterworks, National and State banks, and several weekly newspapers. It has grain elevators, rolling mills, and manufactories of clocks, zin zinc, zinc, plows, sulphuric acid, brick, tile, sash doors, blinds, and wheels. Pop. (1910) 7,984; (1920) 8,869.
Peru a city and county-seat of Miami co.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
a city and county-seat of Miami co., Ind .; on the Wabash river, best known. and on the Lake Erie and Western, the years in the Wabash, and the Chesapeake and Ohio Stanze of the railroads; 75 miles N. of Indianapolis. to Perugia Here are a public library, City Hospital, Raphael waterworks, electric lights, National ic lights, National and State banks, and several daily and weekly newspapers. It has railroad shops, and manufactories of flax, carriages, baskets, foundry products, glass, furniture, flour, woolen goods, carbon, etc. Pop. (1910) 10,910; (1920) 12,410.
What Has Changed in the Last Century
When Collier's wrote this in 1921 it put Peru's population at 5,000,000; today it is roughly 34 million, with about a third of them in Lima alone. The guano islands the entry catalogues in tons are long exhausted as an export mainstay: Peru now earns its living chiefly from copper and gold mining and from the anchoveta fishery, one of the largest catches in the world. The vague frontiers the article notes were settled by force and treaty ack to to Chile in 1929, and the long quarrel with Ecuador led to war in 1941, the Rio Protocol of 1942 and a final boundary agreement only in 1998. Politically the country endured the Shining Path insurgency from 1980 into the 1990s and the rise and fall of Alberto Fujimori, while Machu Picchu, brought to world notice by Hiram Bingham in 1911 and unmentioned here, has become the emblem of Peruvian tourism.
Written for this edition, 2026.