Rome
Rome names 10 different subjects across the 6 encyclopedias on this shelf. Each is set out below.
Rome the capital of Italy
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
the capital of Italy, as forof merly the Roman empire, republic, and kingdom, and long the r relion center of Western Christendom, is one religious of the most ancient and interesting cities of the world . It stands on both sides of the Tiber , about 15 miles from the sea, the river here having a general direction from N. to S., but making two nearly equal bends, the upper of which incloses a large alluvial flat, little raised above the level of the stream, and well known by the ancient name of Campus Martius. A large part of the modern city stands on this flat, but the ancient city lay mostly to the E. and S. E. of this, occupying a series of eminences of small elevation known as the seven hills of Rome (the Capitoline, the Palatine, the Aventine, the Quirinal, the Viminal, the Esquiline, and the Cælian Hill), while a small portion stood on the other side of the river, embracing an eighth hill (Janiculum ). The city is tolerably healthy during most of the year. Ancient Rome, Topography, etc. The of ancient Rome streets were crooked and narrow, the city having been rebuilt, after its destruction by the Gauls in 390 B. C. , with great haste and without regard to regularity. The dwelling-houses were often very high, those of the poorer classes being in flats, as in modern continental towns . It was greatly improved by Augustus, who extended the limits of the city and embellished it with works of splendor . The Campus Martius during his reign was gradually covered with public buildings , temples, porticoes, the aters, etc. The general character of the city, however , remained much the same till after the fire that took place in Nero's reign, when the new streets were made both wide and straight. In the reign of Augustus the population is believed to have amounted to about 1,300,- 000, and in that of Trajan was not far short of 2,000,000 . Rome is said to have been surrounded by walls at three different times. The first of these was ascribed to Romulus, and inclosed only the original city on the Palatine. The second wall, attributed to Servius Tullius, was 7 miles in circuit, and embraced all the hills that gave to Rome the name of the City of Seven Hills. The third wall is known as that of Aurelian, because it was begun and in great part finished by the emperor of that name. It is mostly the the wall that still bounds the city on the same with left or E. bank of the Tiber; but on the right or W. bank, the wall of Aurelian only embraced the summit of the Janiculum and a district between it and the river, whereas the more modern wall on that side (that of Urban VIII braces also the Vatican Hill. The wall .) emof Aurelian was about 11 miles in length, that of modern Rome 14 miles. Ancient Rome had eight or nine bridges across the Tiber, of which stand. The open spaces in ancient Rome, several still of which there were a great number, were distinguished into campi, areas covered with grass ; fora, which were paved; and areæ, a term applied to open spaces ROMULUS AND REMUS generally, and hence to all those which were neither campi nor fora, such as the squares in front of palaces and temples. Of the campi the most the Campus Martius already mentioned, celebrated was and after it the Campus Esquilinus on the E. of the city . Among the latter the Forum Romanum, which lay N. W. and S. E. between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills; and the Forum of Trajan, between the Capitoline and Quirinal, are the most worthy of mention. The first was the most famous and the second the most splendid of The great central street of the city was them all. the Via Sacra (Sacred Way), which began in the space between the Esquiline and Cælian Hills, proceeded thence first S. W., then W., and then N. W., skirting the N. E. slope of the Palatine, and passing along the N. side Forum, and terminated at the base of of the the Capitoline . The two principal roads leading out of Rome were the Via Flaminia ( Flaminian Way) or road, and the Via Appia (Appian Way) great N. or great S. road. Ancient Buildings. - Ancient Rome was public halls, theaters, amphitheaters, baths, porticoes, monuments, etc., of many of which we can now form only a very imperfect idea. The oldest and most sacred temple was that of Jupiter Capitolinus, on the Capitoline Hill. The Pantheon, a temple of various gods (now Church of S. Maria Rotonda), is still in excellent preservation. It is a great circular building with a dome roof of stone 140 feet wide and 140 feet high. Other temples were the Temple of Apollo, which Augustus built of white marble, on the Palatine, containing a splendid library, which served as a place of resort to the poets; the Temple of Minerva, which Pompey built in the Campus Martius, and which Augustus covered with bronze; the Temple of Peace, once the richest and most beautiful temple in Rome, built by Vespasian, in the Via Sacra, which contained the treasures of the temple of Jerusalem, a splendid library, and other curiosities, but was burned during the reign of Commodus; the temple of the Sun, which Aurelian erected to the E. of the Quirinal; and the magnificent temple of Venus, which Cæsar caused to be built to her as the origin of his family. The principal palace of ancient Rome was the Palatium or imperial palace, on the Palatine Hill, a private dwelling-house enlarged and adopted as the imperial residence by Augustus. Succeeding emperors extended and beautified it. Nero built an immense palace which was burned in the great fire. He began to replace it by another of similar extent, which was not completed till the reign of Domitian. Among the theaters, those of Pompey, Cornelius Balbus, and Marcellus were the most celebrated. That of Pompey, in the Campus Martius, was capable of containing 40,000 persons. Of the Theater of Marcellus, completed 13 b. c., a portion still remains. The most magnificent of the amphitheaters was that of Titus, completed A. D. 80, now known as the Coliseum or Colosseum. Though only onethird of the gigantic structure remains, the ruins are still stupendous. The principal of the circuses was the Circus Maximus, between the Palatine and Aventine, which was capable of containing 260,000 spectators. pectators. With slight exception its walls have entirely disappeared, but its form is still distinctly traceable. The porticoes or colonnades, which were public places used for recreation or for the transaction of business, were numerous in the ancient city, as were also the basilicas or public halls. Among them may be noticed the splendid Basiladorned with a vast number of splendid ica Julia, commenced by Cæsar and combuildings, including temples, palaces, pleted by Augustus; and the Basilica Porcia, which was built by Cato the censor. The public baths or thermæ in Rome were also very numerous. The largest were the Thermæ of Titus, part of the substructure of which may still be seen on the Esquiline Hill; the Thermæ of Caracalla, even larger, extensive remains of which still exist in the S. E. of the city; and the Thermæ of Diocletian, the largest and most magnificent of all, part of which is converted into a church. Of the triumphal arches the most celebrated are those of Titus (A. D. 81), Severus (A. D. 203), and that of Constantine (A. D. 311), all in or near the Forum and all well pre preserved structures; that of Drusus (B. c. 8), in the Appian Way, much mutilated; that of Gallienus (A. D. 262) on the Esquiline Hill, in a degraded style of architecture. Among the columns the most beautiful was Trajan's Pillar in the Forum of Trajan, 147 feet in height, still standing. The basreliefs with which it is enriched, extending in spiral fashion from base to summit, represent the exploits of Trajan, and contain about 2,500 half and whole human figures. A flight of stairs within the pillar leads to the top. The most celebrated of ancient sewers is the Cloaca Maxima, ascribed to Tarquinius Priscus, a most substantial structure, the outlet of which is still to be seen. The Roman aqueducts were formed by queducts erecting one or several rows of arches superimposed on each other across a valley, and making the structure support a waterway or canal, and by piercing through hills which interrupted the watercourse. Some of them brought water from a distance of upward of 60 miles. Among others, the Aqua Paola, or Aqua Trajana, and the Aqua Marzia, still remain, and contribute to the supply of the city, and also its numerous important ornamental fountains. Among the magnificent sepulchral monuments, the chief were the mausoleum of Augustus in Campus Martius; and that of Hadrian, on the W. bank of the Tiber, now the fortress of modern Rome, and known as the Castle of St. Angelo. The catacombs of Rome are subterranean galleries which were used as burial places and meeting places, chiefly by the early Christians, and which extend under the city itself as well as the neighboring country. The chief are the catacombs of Calixtus, St. Prætextatus on the Via Appia; of St. Priscilla, 2 miles beyond the Porta Salora; of St. Agnese, outside the Porta Pia; of S. Sebastiano, beneath the church of that name, etc. See CAT- ACOMBS. Modern Rome. It was not till the 17th century that the modern city was extended to its present limits on the right bank, by a wall built under the pontificates of Urban VIII. (1623-1644) and Innocent X. (1644-1655), and inclosing both the Janiculum and the Vatican hills. The boundary wall on the left or E. bank of the river follows the same line as that traced by Aurelian in the 3d century, and must in many parts be identical with the original structure. The walls on both banks are built of brick, with occasional portions of stone work, and on the outside are about 55 feet high. The greater part dates from A. D. 271 to 276. The city is entered by 12 gates (several of those of earlier date being now walled up) and several railway accesses. Since Rome became the capital of united Italy it has lost much of its ancient picturesque appearance, and has acquired the look of a great modern city with wide, straight streets of uniform-looking tenements having little distinctive character. The extensive excavations carried out have laid completely bare the remains of many of the grandest monuments of ancient Rome, notably the whole of Forum Romanum and the Via Sacra, the remains of the Temples of Saturn and of Castor and Pollux, the Temples of Vespasian, of Antoninus and Faustina, the Temple of Vesta, etc. Streets, Squares, etc. Among the principal streets and squares of modern Rome are the Piazza del Popolo immediately within the Porta del Popolo on the N. side of the city near the Tiber, with a fine Egyptian obelisk in its center, and two handsome churches in front, standing so far apart from each other and from the adjoining buildings as to leave room for the divergence of three principal streets, the Via di Ripetta, the Corso, and the Via del Babuino. The Corso stretches for upward of a mile in a direct line to its termination at the Piazza di Venezia, not far from the Capitol, and is the finest street in the city. The appearance of the Capitol has been entirely altered to permit the erection of a monument to Victor Emmanuel. The Via del Babuino proceeds first directly to the Piazza di Spagna, thence to the Quirinal, and by a tunnel opens out on the Esquiline. It contains a large number of handsome edifices. The whole of the city to the E. of this street, and in the triangular space included between it and the Corso, Corso, is well aired and healthy, and is regarded as the aristocratic quarter. The Ghetto, or Jews' quarter, was cleared away in 1889. The chief open spaces besides the Piazza del Popolo are the Piazza S. Pietro, with its extensive colonnade; the Piazza Navona, adorned with two churches and three fountains, one at each extremity and the third in the center; the Piazza di Spagna, adorned by a mo monumental pillar and a magnificent staircase of travertine, leading to the Church of Trinità de' Monti, conspicuously seated on an eminence above it; the Piazza Barberini, beside the palace of the same name, adorned by a beautiful fountain; the Piazza Colonna, in the center of the city, with column of Marcus Aurelius; near it, in the Piazza di Monte Citoria, is the spacious Chamber of Deputies. Larger spaces for amusement or exercise have been formed only in a few spots. One of the finest is the Pincio, or "hill of gardens," overlooking the Piazza del Popolo, and commanding a fine view. It is a fashionable drive toward evening, and presents a gay and animated appearance. At a short distance outside the walls on the N. of the city is the Villa Borghese, forming a finely planted and richly decorated park of 3 miles in circuit, which, though private property, forms the true public park of Rome and is the favorite resort of all classes. Various localities in and near Rome that were malarious have been rendered healthy by planting eucalyptus trees. Churches. The most remarkable of these is the Cathedral of St. Peter, the largest and most imposing to be found anywhere. Another remarkable church is that of San Giovanni in Laterano, on an isolated spot near the S. wall of the city. It was built by Constantine the Great, destroyed by an earthquake in 896, re-erected (904-911), burned in 1308, restored and decorated by Giotto. Again burned in 1360, rebuilt by Urban V. and Gregory XI., and has undergone various alterations and additions from 1430 till the present façade was erected in 1734. A modern extension has involved the destruction of the ancient apse. From the central balcony the Pope pronounces his benediction on Ascension day, and the church is the scene of the councils which bear its name. Other churches are those of Santa Maria Maggiore (434); Santa Croce; San Clement, containing a number of interesting frescoes by Masaccio; Il Gesu, the principal church of the Jesuits, with the façade and cupola by Giacomo della Porta (1577); and an interior enriched with the rarest marbles and several fine paintings, and containing the monument of Cardinal Bellarmine; Sta. Maria-delli- Angeli, originally a part of Diocletian's Baths, converted into a church by Michelangelo, one of the most imposing which Rome possesses, and containing an altarpiece by Muziano, a fine fresco by Domenichino, and the tomb of Salvator Rosa; Sta. Maria in Ara Cœli, on the Capitoline, a very ancient church approached by a very long flight of stairs, remarkable for its architecture and for containing the figure of the infant Christ called the santissimo bambino; Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, at the N. base of the Aventine, remarkable for its fine Alexandrine pavement and its lofty and beautiful campanile of the 8th century; Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, so called from occupying the site of a temple of that goddess, begun in 1285 and restored 1848-1855, remarkable as the only Gothic church in Rome; Sta. Maria in Dominica or della Navicella, on the Cælian, is remarkable for 18 fine columns of granite and two of porphyry, and the frieze of the nave painted in camieau by Giulio Romano and Perino del Vago. Among other churches are Sta. Maria della Pace, celebrated for its paintings, particularly the four Sibyls, considered among the most perfect works of Raphael; Sta. Maria del Popolo, interesting from the number of its fine sculptures and paintings (Jonah by Raphael, ceiling frescoes by Pinturicchio, and mosaics from Raphael's cartoons by Aloisio della Pace); Sta. Maria in Trastevere, a very ancient church, first mentioned in 499 and San Paolo fuori le Mura. Palaces, Picture Galleries, etc. - The Vatican, adjoining St. Peter's, comprises the old and new palaces of the Popes (the latter now the ordinary papal residence), the Sistine chapel, the Loggie and Stanze, containing some of the most important works of Raphael, the picture gallery, the museums (Pio-Clementino, Chiaramonti, Etruscan and Egyptian), and the library (220,000 volumes and over 25,000 MSS.). The palace of the Quirinal was formerly a favorite summer residence of the Popes, but is now occupied by the King of Italy. The Palazzo della Cancelleria is the only palace on the left bank of the river still occupied by the ecclesiastical authorities. The building was designed by Bramante, and is one of the finest in Rome. A series of palaces crowns the summit of the Capitol, and surrounds the Piazza del Campidoglio. It is approached from the N. W. by a flight of steps, at the foot of which two Egyptian lions, and at the summit two colossal statues of Castor and Pollux standing beside their horses, are conspicuous. In the center of the piazza is a bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (161-181). On the S. E. side of the piazza is the Senatorial Palace, in which the senate holds its meetings. The building also contains the offices of the municipal administration and an observatory. Its façade was constructed by Giacomo della Porta, under the direction, it is said, of Michelangelo. On the S. W. side of the piazza is the palace of the Conservatori, containing a collection of antique sculpture, including objects of art discovered during the recent excavations, and a gallery of pictures. Opposite is the museum of the Capitol, with interesting objects of ancient sculpture and a picture gallery. Among private palaces may be noted the Palazzo Barberini, on the Quirinal, with a collection of paintings. The library attached to it has numerous valuable MSS., with some other literary curiosities. The Palazzo Borghese, begun in 1590, has a fine court surrounded by lofty arcades, but is chiefly celebrated for its picture picture gallery, containing Marriage and the Aldobrandi and some other The Palazzo works of great renown. Colonna has a picture gallery and a beautiful garden containing several remains of antiquity. The Palazzo Corsini has a picture gallery, garden, and collection of MSS. and printed books of great value. The Palazzo Farnese, one of the finest in Rome, was built under the direction of Antonio da Sangallo, Michelangelo, and Giacomo della Porta in succession. The celebrated antiquities it once contained (Farnese Bull, Hercules, Flora, etc.), are now in the Museum of Naples. The Palazzo Rospigliosi, erected in 1603, contains some valuable art treasures; among others, on the ceiling of a casino in the garden is the celebrated fresco of Aurora by Guido. Villa Ludovisi, situated in the N. of the city, the ancient gardens of Sallust, contains a valuable collection of ancient sculptures. Villa Farnesina, on the right bank, containing Raphael's charming creations illustrative of the myth of Cupid and Psyche. Educational Institutions, Charities, etc. -Among educational institutions the first place is claimed by the university, founded in 1303. The most flourishing period of the university was the time of Leo X. (1513-1522), under whom the building still occupied by it was begun. Attached to the university are an anatomical and a chemical theater, and cabinets of physics, mineralogy, and zoölogy, as also botanic gardens, and an astronomical observatory. The university is attended by about 2,700 students. The Collegio Romano, formerly a Jesuit college, now contains the Archæological Museum and the recently established library, Biblioteca Vittorio Emanueleconsisting mostly of the old library of the Jesuits, augmented by the libraries of suppressed monasteries (about 500,- 000 volumes). The Collegio de Propaganda Fide has acquired great celebrity as the establishment where Roman Catholic missionaries are trained. The Accademia di San Luca, for the promotion of the fine arts, is composed of painters, sculptors, and architects, and was found ed in 1577 and reorganized in 1874. Connected with it are a pic picture gallery and schools of the fine arts. Other associations and institutions connected with art, science, or learning are numerous; us, one of them, the Accademia de' Lincei, founded in 1603 by Galileo and his contemporaries, is the earliest scientific society of of Italy. Besides the Vatican and Vittorio Emanuele libraries mentioned above, the chief are the Biblioteca Casanatense; the Biblioteca Angelica, and the Biblioteca Berberini. For elementary education much has been done since the papal rule came to an end. Hospitals and other charitable foundations The chief theaters inare numerous. clude the Teatro Apollo, Teatro Argentina, Teatro Valle, the Capranica, Metastasio, Rossini, and the Costanzi. Trade and Manufactures-The external trade is unimportant, and is carried on chiefly by rail, the Tiber being navigated only by small craft. There are railway lines connecting with the general system of Italy; and steamers from Civita Vecchia to Naples, Leghorn, and Genoa. The chief manufactures are woolen and silk goods, artificial flowers, earthenware, jewelry, musical strings, mosaics, casts, and objects of art. Theo trade is chiefly in these articles, and in olive oil, pictures, and antiquities. History. The ancient history of Rome already been given. From the downhas al fall of the empire its history is mainly identified with that of the papacy. An important event in its history is its capture and sack by the troops of the Constable of Bourbon in 1527. In 1798 Rome was occupied by the French, who stripped the palaces, churches, and convents of many works of art and objects of value. Pope Pius VI. was taken prisoner to France, where he soon afterward died, and a Roman republic was set up. In 1848 Pope Pius IX. was driven from Rome, and another Roman republic formed under Mazzini and Garibaldi. A French army was sent to the Pope's assistance, and after a determined resistance Rome was captured by the French in July, 1849, and the Pope returned and resumed his power under the protection of French bayonets (April, 1850). The rule of the Pope continued till October, 1870, when Rome was occupied by the Italian troops on the downfall of the French empire, and in June, 1871, the "Eternal City" became the capital of united Italy. The king took up his residence in the Quirinal; and to accommodate the legislature and various public departments numerous conventual establishments were expropriated. The population of the city has of late vastly increased. In 1870 it was 226,022; in 1881, 276,463; in 1901, 424,860; and in 1920, about 534,000.
Rome Magical practice was rife amongst the Romans
An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1920)
Magical practice was rife amongst the Romans. Magic was the motive power of their worship which was simply an organized system of magical rites for communal ends. It was the basis of their mode of thought and outlook upon the world, it entered into every moment and action of their daily life, it affected their laws and customs. This ingrained tendency instead of diminishing, developed to an enormous extent, into a great system of superstition, and in the later years led to a frenzy for strange gods, borrowed from all countries. In times of misfortune and disaster the Romans were always ready to borrow a god if so be his favours promised more than those of their own deities. Though there was a strong conservative element in the native character, though the " custom of the elders " was strongly upheld by the priestly fraternity, yet this usually gave way before the will and temper of the people. Thus, as a rock shows its geological history by its differing strata, so the theogony of the Roman gods tells its tale of the race who conceived it. There are pre-historic nature deities, borrowed from the indigenous tribes, gods of the Sabines, from whom the young colony stole its wives; gods of the Etruscans, of the Egyptians, Greeks and Persians. The temple of Jupiter on the Capitol contained the altar of a primitive deity, a stone-god, Terminus, the spirit of boundaries: in the temple of Diana of the Grove, a fountain nymph was worshipped. Instances of this description are numerous. Spirits. In addition to the gods, there were spirits to be propitiated. Indeed the objects offered to the Roman for adoration were numberless. Apuleius gives a description of this when he tells of a country road where one might meet an altar wreathed with flowers, a cave hung with garlands, an oak tree laden with horns of cattle, a hill marked by fences as sacred, a log rough-hewn into shape, an altar of turf smoking with libations or a stone anointed with oil. Every single action of man's daily life had a presiding spirit; commerce and husbandry likewise. There was eating. Ednea, drinking Potina; there were spirits of departure, of journeying, of approaching and homecoming. In commerce there was Mercurius, the spirit of gain, of money, Pecunia; in farming, the spirits of cutting, grinding, sowing and bee-keeping. A deity presided over streets and highways; there was a goddess of the sewers, Cloacina,; a spirit of bad smells, Mephitis. Spirits of evil must also be propitiated by pacificatory rites, such as Robigo, the spirit of mildew; in Rome there was an altar to Fever and Bad Fortune. From the country came Silvanus, god of farms and woods, and his Fauns and nymphs with Picus, the wood-pecker god who had fed the twins Romulus and Remus with berries-all these were possessed of influences and were approached with peculiar rites. The names of these spirits were inscribed on tablets, indigitamenta, which were in the charge of the pontiffs, who thus knew which spirit to evoke according to the need. Most of these spirits were animistic in origin. The Roman Worship consisted of magical rites destined to propitiate the powers controlling mankind; to bring man into touch with them, to renew his life and that which supported it, the land with its trees, corn and cattle, to stop that process of degeneration constantly set in motion by evil influences. Everything connected with it typified this restoration. The Priests who represented the life of the community, were therefore bound by strict observances from endangering it in any way. Rules as to attire, eating and touch were numerous. Sacrifices were systematised according to the end desired and the deity invoked. There were rules as to whether the victim must be young or full-grown, male or female; oxen were to be offered to Jupiter and Mars; swine to Juno, to Ceres the corngoddess and to Silvanus. At one shrine a cow in calf was sacrificed and the ashes of the unborn young were of special magical efficacy. Human sacrifice existed within historical times. After the battle of Canne the Romans had sought to divert misfortune by burying two Greeks alive in the cattle-market while in the time of Julius Cæsar two men were put to death with sacrificial solemnities by the Pontiff and Flamen of Mars. Again, in the time of Cicero and Horace boys were killed for magical purposes. Fire possessed great virtue and was held sacred in the worship of Vesta, in early belief Vesta being the fire itself; it presided over the family hearth; it restored purity and conferred protection. Blood had the same quality and smeared on the face of the god symbolised and brought about the one-ness of the deity with the community. On great occasions the Statue of Jupiter was treated thus: the priests of Bellona made incisions in their shoulders and sprinkled the blood upon the image; the face of a triumphant general was painted with vermilion to represent blood. Kneeling and prostration brought one into direct contact with the earth of the sacred place. Music was also used as a species of incantation, probably deriving its origin in sound made to drive away evil spirits. Dancing too was of magical efficacy. In Rome there were colleges of dancers for the purposes of religion, youths who danced in solemn measure about the altars, who, in the sacred month of Mars took part in the festivals and went throughout the city dancing and singing. One authority states four kinds of "holy solemnity"; sacrifice, sacred banquets, public festivals and games. Theatrical performances also belonged to this category, in one instance being used as a means of diverting a pestilence. The sacred banquets were often decreed by the Senate as thanks- Rome giving to the gods. Tables were spread with a sumptuous repast in the public places and were first offered to the statues of the deities seated around. The festivals were numerous, all of a magical and symbolic nature. In the spring there was the Parilia when fires of straw were lighted, through which persons passed to be purified; the Cerealia, celebrated with sacrifice and offerings to Ceres, the corn-goddess, and followed by banquets. The Lupercalia, the festival of Faunus, was held in February and symbolised the wakening of Spring and growth. Goats were slain as sacrifice and with their blood the Luperci, youths clad in skins, smeared their faces. They took thongs of the goat-skin and laughing wildly rushed through the city striking the crowd, Roman matrons believing that the blows thus received rendered them prolific. Juno, the goddess of marriage and childbirth also had her festival, the Matronalia, celebrated by the women of Rome. There were the festivals of the dead when the door leading to the other world was opened, the stone removed from its entrance in the Comitium, and the shades coming forth were appeased with offerings. On these days three times in the year, when the gods of gloom were abroad, complete cessation from all work was decreed, no battle could be fought nor ship set sail neither could a man marry. To the Sacred Games were taken the statues of the gods in gorgeous procession, chariots of silver, companies of priests, youths singing and dancing. The gods viewed the games reclining on couches. The Chariot races also partook of the nature of rites. After the races in the Field of Mars came one of the most important Roman rites, the sacrifice of the October Horse. The right-hand horse of the victorious team was sacrificed to Mars, and the tail of the animal, running with blood, carried to the Altar of the Regia. The blood was stored in the temple of Vesta till the following spring and used in the sacrifice of the festival of Parilia. This sacrifice was essentially magical, all citizens present being looked upon as purified by the blood-sprinkling and lustral bonfire. The Roman outlook upon life was wholly coloured by magic. Bodily foes had their counterpart in the unseen world, wandering spirits of the dead, spirits of evil, the anger of innocently offended deities, the menace of the evil eye. Portents and prodigies were everywhere. In the heavens strange things might be seen. The sun had been known to double, even treble itself; its light turn to blood, or a magical halo to appear round the orb. Thunder and lightning were always fraught with presage; Jove was angered when he opened the heavens and hurled his bolts to earth. Phantoms, too, hovered amid the clouds; a great fleet of ships had been seen sailing over the marshes. Upon the Campagna the gods were observed in conflict, and afterwards tracks of the combatants were visible across the plain. Unearthly voices were heard amid the mountains and groves; cries of portent had sounded within the temples. Blood haunted the Roman imagination. Sometimes it was said to have covered the land as a mantle, the standing corn was dyed with blood, the rivers and fountains flowed with it, while walls and statues were covered with a bloody sweat. The flight and song of birds might be foretelling the decrees of Fate; unappeased spirits of the dead were known to lurk near and steal away the souls of men and then they too were "dead." All these happenings were attributable to the gods and spirits, who, if the portent be one of menace, must be propitiated, if one of good fortune, thanked with offerings. Down to the later times this deep belief in the occurrence of prodigies persisted. When Otho set out for Italy , Rome rang with reports of a gigantic phantom rushing forth from the Temple of Juno; of the Statue of Julius turning from east to west. Augury. Divination was connected with the Roman worship. There was a spot on the Capitol from which the augur with veiled head read the auspices in the flight of birds. Augurs also accompanied armies and fleets and read the omens before an engagement was entered upon. Divination was also practised by reading the intestines of animals, by dreams, by divine possession as in the case of the Oracles when prophecies were uttered. These had been gathered together in the Sibylline books (q.v.), and were consulted as oracles by the State. With the worship of Fortune were connected the Lots of Præneste. The questions put to the goddess were answered by means of oaken lots which a boy drew from a case made of sacred wood. The fortune-tellers also used a narrow-necked urn which, filled with water, only allowed one lot at a time to rise. Astrologers from Chaldea were also much sought after and were attached to the kingly and noble houses. Familiar things of everyday life were of magical import. Words, Numbers, odd ones specially for the Kalends, Nones and Ides were so arranged as to fall upon odd days; touch was binding and so recognised in the law of Rome, as the grasp of a thing sold, from a slave to a turf of distant estate; and knotting and twisting of thread was injurious so that women must never pass by cornfields twisting their spindles, they must not even be uncovered. There was a strange sympathy between the trees and mankind, and great honour was paid to the sacred trees of Rome. On the oak tree of Jupiter the triumphant general hung the shield and arms of his fallen foe; while the hedges about the Temple of Diana at Nemi were covered with votive offerings. The trees also harboured the spirits of the dead who came forth as dreams to the souls of men. Pliny the elder says in this matter "Trees have a soul since nothing on earth lives without one. They are the temples of spirits and the simple countryside dedicates still a noble tree to some god. The various kinds of trees are sacred to their protecting spirits: the oak to Jupiter, the laurel to Apollo, olive to Minerva, myrtle to Venus, white poplar to Hercules." These trees therefore partook of the nature of their presiding spirits and it was desirable to bring about communion with their magical influence, as in the spring when laurel boughs were hung at the doors of the flamens and pontiffs and in the temple of Vesta where they remained hanging till the following year. Trees and their leaves were also possessed of healing and purifying value; laurel was used for the latter quality as in the Roman triumphs the fasces of the commander, the spears and javelins of legionaries were wreathed with its branches to purify them from the blood of the enemy. Man himself had a presiding spirit, his genius, each woman her "juno " the Saturnalia was really a holiday for this other self." The Roman kept his birthday in honour of his genius, offering frankincense, cakes and unmixed wine on an altar garlanded with flowers and making solemn prayers for the coming year. City and village had their genii, also bodies of men from the senate to the scullions. 66 دو Death was believed to be the life and soul enticed away by revengeful ghosts, hence death would never occur save by such agencies. The dead therefore must be appeased with offerings or else they wander abroad working evil among the living. This belief is present in Ovid's lines : "Once upon a time the great feast of the dead was not observed and the manes failed to receive the customary gifts, the fruit, the salt, the corn steeped in unmixed wine, the violets. The injured spirits revenged themselves on the living and the city was encircled with the funeral fires of their victims. The townsfolk heard their grandsires complaining in the quiet hours of the night, and told each other how the unsubstantial troop of monstrous spectres rising from their tombs, shrieked along the city Rose streets and up and down the fields." Beans were used in the funeral feasts. They were supposed to harbour the souls of the dead, and the bean-blossom to be inscribed with characters of mourning. 66 " Dreams were considered of great importance by the Romans; many historical instances of prophetic dreams may be found. They were thought to be like birds, the bronze-coloured hawks; they were also thought to be the souls of human beings visiting others in their sleep; also the souls of the dead returning to earth. In Virgil much may be found on this subject; Lucretius tried to find a scientific reason for them; Cicero, though writing in a slighting manner of the prevalent belief in these manifestations of sleep, yet records dreams of his own, which events proved true. Sorcery in all its forms, love-magic and death-magic was rife amongst all classes, besides necromantic practices. There were charms and spells for everything under the sun; the rain-charm of the pontiffs consisting of the throwing of puppets into the Tiber; the charm against thunder-bolts compounded of onions, hair and sprats; the charm against an epidemic when the matrons of Rome swept the temple-floors with their hair; and many more down to the simple love-charm strung round the neck of the country maiden. Witches were prevalent. The poets often chose these sinister figures for their subjects, as when Horace describes the ghastly rites of two witches in the cemetery of the Esquiline. Under the light of the new moon they crawl about looking for poisonous herbs and bones; they call the spectres to a banquet consisting of a black lamb torn to pieces with their teeth, and after, these phantoms must answer the questions of the sorceresses. They make images of their victims and pray to the infernal powers for help; hounds and snakes glide over the ground, the moon turns to blood, and as the images are melted so the lives of the victims ebb away. Virgil gives a picture of a sorceress performing love-magic by means of a waxen image of the youth whose love she desired. Lucan in his Pharsalia treats of Thessaly, notorious in all ages for sorcery and draws a terrific figure-Erichtho, a sorceress of illimitable powers, one whom even the gods obeyed, to whom the forces of earth and heaven were bond-slaves; and Fate waiting her least command. Both Nero and Agrippina his mother were reported to have had recourse to the infamous arts of sorcery; while in the New Testament may be found testimony as to these practices in Rome. The attitude of the cultured class towards magic is illustrated by an illuminating passage to be found in the writings of Pliny the elder. He says "The art of magic has prevailed in most ages and in most parts of the globe. Let no one wonder that it has wielded very great authority inasmuch as it embraces three other sources of influence. No one doubts that it took its rise in medicine and sought to cloak itself in the garb of a science more profound and holy than the common run. It added to its tempting promises the force of religion, after which the human race is groping, especially at this time. Further it has brought in the arts of astrology and divination. For everyone desires to know what is to come to him and believes that certainty can be gained by consulting the stars. Having in this way taken captive the feelings of man by a triple chain it has reached such a pitch that it rules over all the world and in the East, governs the King of Kings." K.N. Romer, Dr. C.: (See Spiritualism.)
Rome the capital of Italy
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
the capital of Italy. The most celebrated city in the world. It is situated on both banks of the Tiber, about fifteen miles from the Mediterranean. It was built originally on seven hills and their connecting valleys. These hills are known in history as the Capitoline, Palatine, Aventine, Caelian, Viminal, Esquiline, and Quirinal. The actual origin of the city is lost in antiquity. According to tradition it was founded by Romulus, 753 B. C. According to the same authority the government was monarchial up to 509, when a republic was established. An imperial form of government was established 27 B. C. The history of the first centuries of the republic are also matters of conjecture. During the fifth and fourth centuries B. C. Rome was engaged in struggles with surrounding tribes, notably the Volscians, Etruscans, and Samnites, the result of which was the final Roman domination of all Italy. The history of Rome was one of western expansion up to the reign of Trajan, 98-117 A. D. The empire was then at its greatest extent. It included the civilized world, embracing not only Italy, but southern Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia. At this period the population of the city itself is variously estimated at from 1,500,000 to 2,500,000 people. Christianity became the official religion of the empire about 323 A. D. The capital was transferred from Rome to Constantinople in 330. The Roman world was divided into the eastern and western empire in 395. The capital of the western empire was removed from Rome to Ravenna in 402. The western empire suffered attacks from the Franks, Vandals, Burgundians, Angles, and Saxons. It was attacked by the Goths under Alaric in 408; by the Vandals in 455. The western Roman empire may be said to have come to an end in 476. From a description of the city written about A. D. 312 we know that Rome had 6 obelisks, 8 bridges, 11 baths, 856 bathrooms, 19 aqueducts (4 now in use), 2 circuses, 2 amphitheaters, 3 theaters, 4 gladiatorial schools, and 36 triumphal arches. There were 423 streets, 1,790 palaces, and 46,602 dwelling-houses. From the 37 gates diverged 28 roads. In one sense of the word Rome is a vast museum of archaeology. Extensive excavations have been made recently. Literally mountains of rubbish have been removed from the city. The temples, basilicas, palaces, baths, and public places of ancient Rome may be studied now to advantage. Some are in a good state of repair. Of others but traces remain. Many of the triumphal arches and columns are practically uninjured. A countless number of marble and bronze statues, coins, vases, and other objects of art have been arranged in museums and other places for safe keeping. Much has been done. Much remains to be done. The work of excavating has been prosecuted by the Italian government under the intelligent supervision of Professor Lanciani, professor of archaeology in the University of Rome. His Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, published in 1888, should be in every school library. An association of American universities maintains a school of archaeology at Rome.
Rome "The Eternal City," is by no means wholly of the past
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
"The Eternal City," is by no means wholly of the past. It is again the capital of an independent and united Italy. It is the residence of the pope. The Italian system of railroads centers here. The modern city possesses no small amount of wealth. It is a manufacturing and commercial center of increasing importance. Rome is still surrounded by walls of brick and stone about fifty-five feet in height. They are pierced by a dozen gates and have been opened in several places to permit the entrance of railways. Well paved streets and brilliantly lighted squares are adorned with statuary. There are notable blocks rivaling those of Paris. The Corso, lined with elegant modern palaces, is one of the finest streets in Europe. St Peter's Cathedral and the Vatican are situated on the right bank, that is to say, in the section north of the Tiber. The population of the city in 1901 was 462,783. It contains the most interesting museums and art galleries in Europe. Rome is the art center of the world and the ecclesiastical center of the Catholic church. The thread of Roman history may be unraveled from separate articles on ETRURIA; ROMULUS; CARTHAGE; HANNIBAL; GRACCHI; MARIUS; CATILINE; CAESAR; POMPEY; AUGUSTUS; NERO; TRAJAN; RAVENNA; HUNS; ATTILA; ALARIC; RIENZI; ITALY; GARIBALDI; MAZZINI; VICTOR EMMANUEL ; CAVOUR; VATICAN; PIUS, etc. The chief antiquities are treated under COLISEUM; CLOACA MAXIMA ; CATACOMBS; PANTHEON; CIRCUS; TIBER; BATHS; AQUEDUCTS; ROAD; etc. Modern topics are the VATICAN; LATERAN; ST. PETER'S, etc. EMPERORS OF ROME FROM AUGUSTUS TO ROMULUS AUGUSTUS. Augustus reigns 31 B. C. to A. D. 14 A. D. Tiberius 14-37 Caligula 37-41 Claudius 41-54 Nero 54-68 Galba 68-69 Otho 69 Vitellius 69 Vespasian 69-79 Titus 79-81 Domitian 81-96 Nerva 96-98 Trajan 98-117 Hadrian 117-138 Antoninus Pius 138-161 {Marcus Aurelius 161-180 {Verus associated with Aurelius 161-169 Commodus 180-192 Pertinax 193 Didius Julianus 193 Septimius Severus 193-211 {Caracalla 211-217 {Geta 211-212 Macrinus 217-218 Elagabalus 218-222 Alexander Severus 222-235 Maximin 235-238 Gordian III 238-244 Philip 244-249 Decius 249-251 Period of the Thirty Tyrants 251-268 Claudius 268-270 Aurelian 270-275 Tacitus 275-276 Probus 276-282 Carus 282-283 {Carinus 283-284 {Numerian 283-284 {Diocletian 284-305 {Maximian 286-305 {Constantius I 305-306 {Galerius 305-311 Constantine the Great 306-337 Reigns as sole ruler 323-337 Constantine II 337-340 Constans I 337-350 Constantius II 337-361 Reigns as sole ruler 350-361 Julian the Apostate 361-363 Jovian 363-364 {Valentinian I 364-375 {Valens (in the East) 364-378 Gratian 375-383 Maximus 383-388 Valentinian II 375-392 Eugenius 392-394 Theodosius the Great 379-395 Reigns as sole emperor 394-395 EMPERORS IN THE WEST. Honorius 395-423 Valentinian III 425-455 Maximus 455 A. D. Avitus 455-456 Count Ricimer creates and deposes emperors 456-472 Romulus Augustus 475-476 EMPERORS IN THE EAST. (From A. D. 395 to Fall of Rome.) Arcadius 395-408 Theodosius II 408-450 Marcian 450-457 Leo I 457-474 Zeno 474-491
Rome the most powerful state of antiquity
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
the most powerful state of antiquity; founded about 753 b. c. by a settlement from Alba Longa led by ROMULUS (q. v.). At first the new city was ruled by kings, but in 509 B. c. the people established a republic which lasted for 500 years. Its most important feature was the struggle between the plebeians and the patricians, settled finally in 286 B. c., by admission of the plebeians to a share in the government. Meanwhile Rome had been gradually spreading out, and by 275 B. c. was mistress of all Italy. The next 30 years were crucial in the history of Rome. Her aggressive policy in the Mediterranean brought her face to face with CARTHAGE (q. v.), and under their military genius HANNIBAL, (q. v.) the Carthaginians threatened the very existence of Rome itself (see Pu- NIC WARS). Carthage was finally burned to the ground in 146 B. c. By 133 b. c. Rome had conquered Macedonia and Asia Minor. At this point begins the decline of Rome as a republic. A series of bitter ; civil wars centralized the governing power in the hands of a few leaders (see SULLA: MARIUS: POMPEY: CÆSAR: TRI- UMVIRATE); and in 48 B. C. Julius Cæsar was created Imperator. With Cæsar the republic and Rome's greatest period came to an end. Under the republic the power of Rome had been extended from Arabia to Great Britain, and from Spain to Armenia. See MITHRIDATES. In 27 b. c. Octavian became first emperor of Rome under the title of Au- GUSTUS (q. v.). His immediate successors added slightly to Roman territory, but under MARCUS AURELIUS (q. v.) the decline began. From A. D. 180 to 284 (see TRAJAN) Rome grew gradually weaker. In 284 DIOCLETIAN (q. v.) re- Ewing Galloway THE ROMAN FORUM Enc. Vol. 8-p. 100 Ewing Galloway THE COLISEUM, ROME, ITALY Keystone View Company A CELEBRATION OF MASS FOR ITALIAN TROOPS IN THE INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM Keystone View Company THE SISTINE CHAPEL IN THE VATICAN, WITH MICHELANGELO'S MURAL PAINTING OF THE "LAST JUDGMENT" Keystone View Company HALL OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, THE VATICAN, ROME, ITALY Keystone View Company CASTLE ST. ANGELO AND BRIDGE OVER THE TIBER, ROME DEN HAAG Keystone View Company A BUSY CANAL IN THE CITY OF ROTTERDAM, IN THE NETHERLANDS Underwood & Underwood THE ROYAL GORGE, COLORADO organized the empire, and for nearly 200 years these reforms delayed the inevitable disruption; but in 395 the empire separated into two divisions; the Eastern, or BYZANTINE (q. v.) and the Western; and in 476 the Western, or Roman empire was finally overthrown, and Odoacer, a German, became King of Italy. See ITALY: ROMANCE LANGUAGES.
Rome AMERICAN ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS IN
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
AMERICAN ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS IN, a division of the American Academy of the American School of Classical in Rome, a consolidation Studies in Rome, founded in 1895, and the American Academy of Fine Arts in Rome, originated in 1894 and formally organized and incorporated in 1897. The American Academy of Fine Arts in Rome was created as an institution to serve the national need for acquaintance with the classical sources and atmosphere. Begun under the impetus and inspiration of the World's Fair and supported by such men as McKim and Burnham, it soon became a vital force in the art world of America, receiving and training many of our best artists, architects, and sculptors at the Villa Aurora in Rome. In 1909 the Academy accepted the bequest of Mrs. Heyland, an American lady resident in Rome and long a generous patron of the society, and moved the school to the beautiful Villa Aurelia, a home of peculiar fitness for its work, both by equipment and location. Here it has continued ers, its work, offering instruction and criticism to students in the more advanced fields of architecture, painting, landscape architecture, and sculpture. Annual fellowships of generous amount are offered by the Academy to American students of exceptional attainment and promise in the several divisions of art above mentioned, and the Academy has already made its influence apparent in the modby the noteern art world of America ica worthy accomplishments of its graduates.
Rome AMERICAN COLLEGE IN, a Catholic institution in Rome
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
AMERICAN COLLEGE IN, a Catholic institution in Rome, Italy, established in 1859, for the education of American ecclesiastics. The prime mov- Ar Archbishop in the project were ers Hughes of New York and Archbishop Kenrick of Baltimore, and the first president was the Rev. William George Mc- Closkey, later Bishop of Louisville. The money required for the establishment and conduct of the college was mainly contributed from the Un United States, though Pope Pius IX. bought and presented to the American bishops as the nucleus of the foundation the old Visitation Convent of the Umilta, then occupied by the soldiers of the French garrison in Rome. The college was formally opened with thirteen students who had for some time been waiting in the College of the Propaganda for the event. The first ordination of an alumnus was in 1862, in the Church of St. John Lateran by Cardinal Patuzzi. During the Vatican Council the American prelates in Rome decided that the property of the college should remain in the hands of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda. There are thirty-five purses or scholarships founded in the colleges. The number of students is about one hundred and forty. In 1884 the college was exempted from the effect of the Italian statutes of confiscation.
Rome UNIVERSITY OF, a governeducational institution situated in ment Rome
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
UNIVERSITY OF, a governeducational institution situated in ment Rome, Italy, and now known as the Royal University. In former times it was known as the Studium Urbis. The University of Rome was founded at the beginning of the 14th century by Pope Boniface VIII. During the political and social upheavals which accompanied the Great Schism and so violently affected the more temporal aspects of the Church of Rome, the University ceased for a exist. It was revived reorganized under its former name by Eugenius IV. in 1431. From then on it maintained its existence as a papal in- King of Alba, but deprived by his brothstitution until the year 1870, when in the political upheaval of that period, it was brought under the control of the Italian Government. The Royal Uni- shepherd. Their parentage was discovversity has a registration of between four and five thousand students. Although handicapped, as other educational institutions have been by the recent World War, it has continued to on its activities in the several schools of engineering, pharmacy, agriculture, diplomacy, philosophy, science, medicine, and law. Its manuscript, pamphlet, and book collections, known as the Biblioteca Alessandrina, have been credited with about 250,000 volumes.
Rome a city in Oneida co.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
a city in Oneida co., N. Y.; on the Mohawk river, the Erie and Black River canals, and the New York, Yon On- Central and Hudson River railroads; 15 miles N. W. of Utica. Here are St. Peter's Academy for Young Ladies, the State. Custodial Asylum, the Central New York Institute for Deaf Mutes, County Court House, County Home, city hospital, street railroad and electric light plants, waterworks, the Jervis Library, National and savings banks, and several daily and weekly newspapers. The city has locomotive and farming implement works, factories, machine shops, and cigar cigar factories, and copper manufactures of brass products, canned goods, wire, bedsteads, etc. Pop. (1910) 20,497; (1920) 26,341.
Rome a city and county-seat of Floyd co.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
a city and county-seat of Floyd co., Ga.; on the Coosa river, and on the Southern, the Central of Georgia, the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis, the Rome and Northern and the Western and Atlantic railroads; 72 miles N. W. of Atlanta. Here are a high school, Shorter College for Women (Bapt.); hospitals, parks, waterworks, electric lights, street railroads, National and State banks, and daily and weekly periodicals. The There is a large trade in cotton and general merchandise. The city has plow works, sewer pipe works, foundries, a rolling mill, stove works, furniture factory, planing mills, cotton mills, hosiery works, etc. Pop. (1910) 12,099; (1920) 13,252.
What Has Changed in the Last Century
The great bulk of this page is Collier's 1921 account of the Italian capital, and that is where the century did its work: the popes and the Italian state settled their quarrel with the Lateran Treaty of 1929, which carved the independent Vatican City out of the city; Mussolini then drove the Via dei Fori Imperiali through the imperial forums in 1932; the treaty founding the European Economic Community was signed on the Capitoline in 1957; and the historic centre became a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980. The city Collier's described has also swollen from well under a million people to roughly 2.8 million, spreading far beyond the fourteen miles of wall it treats as the boundary. The other Romes on the page have gone their own quiet ways, chiefly the American towns of the name, of which Rome in Oneida County, New York, and Rome in northwest Georgia remain the best known; the smaller hamlets and townships that the encyclopedias listed are now largely of local interest only. Read today, the long topographical passages on the seven hills, the Aurelian wall and the Pantheon are still broadly sound; it is the modern city, not the ancient one, that has been rewritten.
Written for this edition, 2026.