Spain
3 of the 7 encyclopedias on this shelf carry an entry for Spain. Both are reproduced below, so you can see where they agree and where they differ.
An Encyclopaedia of Occultism (1920)
2026 Editor's Note: This page uses language about other peoples, religions, or nationalities that was commonplace when the book was published and is offensive by today's standards. The text has been left exactly as it was printed, rather than cut or softened, so that the historical record — including how ordinary such language once was — is preserved. (Ed: ET 2026-07-22) Witchcraft . - From early times Spain was regarded as the special abode of superstition, and in the middle ages as the home of sorcery and magic, probably because of the immense notoriety given to the discoveries of the Moorish alchemists. (See Moors .) The Inquisition quickly took root in the country, and reaped a rich harvest among Jews, Moriscos, and superstitious Christians. Alfonso de Spina, a Franciscan of Castille, where the Inquisition was not then established, wrote, about the year 1458 or 1460, a work especially directed against heretics and unbelievers, in which he gives a chapter on these articles of popular belief which were derived from the ancient heathendom of the people. Among these, witches, under the name of Xurguine (jurgina) or bruxe, held a prominent place. He tells us that in his time these offenders abounded in Dauphiny and Gascony, where they assembled in great numbers by night on a wild table land, carrying candles with them, to worship Satan, who appeared in the form of a boar on a certain rock, popularly known by the name Elboch de Biterne, and that many of them had been taken by the inquisition of Toulouse and burnt. From that time we find, in Spanish history, the charge of witchcraft and sorcery not infrequently brought forward under different forms and circumstances, of which several remarkable examples are given by Llorente in his History of the Inquisition in Spain. The first auto-da-fé against sorcery appears to have been that of Calahorra, in 1507, when thirty women, charged before the inquisition as witches, were burnt. In 1527, a great number of women were accused in Navarre of the practice of sorcery, through the information of two girls, one of eleven, the other only of nine years old, who confessed before the royal council of Navarre that they had been received into the sect of the jurginas, and promised on condition of being pardoned, to discover all the women who were implicated in these practices. The moment the attention of the inquisition was thus drawn to the crime of sorcery, the prevalence of this superstition in the Basque provinces became notorious; and Charles V., rightly judging that it was to be attributed more to the ignorance of the population of those districts than to any other cause, directed that preachers should be sent to instruct them. The first treatise in the Spanish language on the subject of sorcery, by a Franciscan monk named Martin de Castanaga, was printed under approbation of the bishop of Calahorra in 1529. About this time the zeal of the inquisitors of Saragossa was excited by the appearance of many witches who were said to have come from Navarre, and to have been sent by their sect as missionaries to make disciples of the women of Arragon. This sudden witchpersecution in Spain appears to have had an influence on the fate of the witches of Italy . Pope Adrian IV., who was raised to the papal chair in 1522, was a Spanish bishop, and had held the office of inquisitor-general in Spain. In the time of Julius II., who ruled the papal world from 1503 to 1513, a sect of witches and sorcerers had been discovered in Lombardy, who were extremely numerous, and had their Sabbaths and all the other abominations of the continental witches. The proceedings against them appear to have been hindered by a dispute between the inquisitors and the ecclesiastical judges who claimed the jurisdiction in such cases. On the 20th July, 1523, pope Adrian issued a bull against the crime of sorcery, placing it in the sole jurisdiction of the inquisitors. This bull perhaps gave the new impulse to the prosecution of the witches in Spain. Of the cases which followed during more than a century, the most remarkable was that of the auto-da-fé at Logrono on the 7th and 8th of November, 1610, which arose in some measure from the visitation of the French Basque province in the preceding year. The valley of Bastan is situated at the foot of the Pyrenees, on the French Frontier, and at no great distance from Labourd. It was within the jurisdiction of the inquisition established at Logrono in Castille. The mass of the population of this valley appear to have been sorcerers, and they held their meetings or Sabbaths at a place called Zugarramurdi. A woman who was condemned implicated a number of other persons. All the persons arrested on this occasion agreed in their description of the Sabbath, and of the practices of the witches, which in their general features bore a close resemblance to those of the witches of Labourd. The usual place of meeting was known here, as in Labourd, by the popular name of Aquelarre, a Gascon word, signifying the meadow of the goat. Their ordinary meetings were held on the nights of Monday, Wednesday and Friday, every week, but they had grand feasts on the principal holidays of the church, such as Easter, Pentecost, Christmas, etc., All these feasts appear to have been fixed by the Christian teachers at the period of older pagan festivals. The accounts of their Sabbaths are entirely similar to those given of such meetings elsewhere. They danced, sang took part in the most horrible orgies, and came into personal contact with Satan. The auto-da-fé of Logrono, as far as it related to the sect of the sorcerers of Zugarramurdi, caused a great sensation, and brought the subject of witchcraft under the consideration of the Spanish theologians. These were so far more enlightened than the body of their contemporaries in other countries, that they generally leant to the opinion that witchcraft was a mere delusion, and that the details of Spain the confessions of the miserable creatures who were its victims were all creations of the imagination. They were punished because their belief was a heresy, contrary to the doctrines of the church. Llorente gives the abstract of a treatise on this subject by a Spanish ecclesiastic named Pedro de Valentia, addressed to the grand inquisitor in consequence of the trial at Logrono in 1610, and which remained in manuscript among the archives of the inquisition. This writer adopts entirely the opinion that the acts confessed by the witches were imaginary; he attributed them partly to the methods in which the examinations were carried on, and to the desire of the ignorant people examined to escape by saying what seemed to please their persecutors, and partly to the effects of the ointments and draughts which they had been taught to use, and which were composed of ingredients that produced sleep , and acted upon the imagination and the mental faculties. Spiritualism .-A writer in the Religious Philosophical Journal says:-" The language that furnishes the largest number of periodicals devoted to the dissemination of the doctrine and philosophy of modern Spiritualism, is the Spanish. This statement will be somewhat surprising to many of our readers, for we have been accustomed to look upon the Spaniards as non-progressive and conservative in the extreme. Spain, until a few years, has always been intolerant of any religions except the Roman Catholic, and was the latest of European nations to yield to the spirit . of religious progress. Protestantism has with the greatest difficulty obtained a foothold in that country within the last few years, but it has been attended with annoying restrictions and persecutions, while its progress has been exceedingly slow and discouraging. Spiritualism in Spain commenced, as in many other lands, with a series of disturbances, which took place in a family residing in the outskirts of Cadiz. Stonethrowing, bellringing, and other preternatural annoyances were the first means of awakening attention to the subject, and as they occurred at the house of a Spanish gentleman who had just returned from the United States , full of the marvels of "the Rochester knockings," circles were at once formed, intelligent responses by rappings obtained, and a foot -hold gained, upon which the edifice of Spiritual progress was upreared. So rapidly did the interest thus awakened spread, that the first promulgators were soon lost sight of, and as early as 1854, a society was formed at Cadiz , which was organised for the sole purpose of publishing the comthe communications received from the Spirits during two " during two preceding years. From 1854 to 1860, Spiritualism spread through the principal towns and villages of Spain in the usual fashion. Circles were held in private families, and an endless number of societies' were formed and diswere formed and dissolved, according to the exigencies of the time. One of the first public events of note in connection with Spanish Spiritualism, was of so remarkable a character, that it , that it deserves special mention. This was no other than an Auto-da-fé, the only difference between the occasion under consideration and the fiery executions of olden times being, times being, that the victims were formerly human beings, whereas in the present instance, they were all the books, pamphlets, and works of a Spiritualistic character that could be procured at that period of the movement. Amongst the . Amongst the pile thus offered up on the altar of religious enlightenment , were the writings of Kardec, Dufau, Grand, and Guldenand Guldenstubbé; some copies of English and American Spiritual papers, and a large collection of tracts issued by the Spiritby the Spiritualists of Spain. This memorable scene occurred on the morning of the 9th of October, 1861, at the Esplanade Barcelona. Among the well-know residents of Barcelona, was a Señor Navarez, whose daughter, Rosa, had for many years been the subject of spasmodic attacks, called by the Catholic clergy the obsession of demons "-by the medical faculty, an aggravated condition of epilepsy. Within two years after the Auto-da-fé, Rosa was pronounced entirely cured, by the magnetic passes of a gentleman who was the medium of the private circle held in the city. Shortly after this, Barcelona could boast of its wellapproved Spiritual organs, numerous societies for investi-- gation, and several mediums, who from their exclusive positions in private life, would object to their names being mentioned. The journal whs published by Señor Alcantara, and was warmly supported by the Viscount de Torres Solanot, and numbers of other leaders of science and literature in Spain. By this publication the opponents of Spiritualism were amazed to learn of the immense progress the cause was making, and the number of distinguished persons who assembled nightly in circles to promote investigation. A circular calling the attention of the Spanish public to the phenomena of Spiritualism was published in 1875 by Viscount Solanot. The authors of this circular, met with no response worthy of their fraternal intentions. It might have been difficult to define exactly what the Spanish brethren proposed to do or wished others to unite with them in doing; certain it is, that no tangible results could be expected to follow from a very transcendental address to the scattered ranks of a movement, whose motto might well be Liberty, Inequality, and Disintegration: "Our Spanish friends mean well, but is it possible there can be unity enough amongst them to send a delegation to America ? asked one of the shrewdest on perusing this grandiloquent circular. Nothing daunted by the impossibility of getting an international representation worthy of the cause at Philadelphia, the energetic Viscount Solanot again agitated the subject previous to the Paris Exposition of 1878. In the articles written for El Criterio on this proposition, the Viscount names amongst those societies of Spiritualists prepared to promote an International representation, "La Federation Espirita," of Belgium; "The British National Association of Spiritualists," England; "La Sociedad Central Espirita," of the Republic of Mexico; and "El Central General del Espiritismo." Notice is also taken, and with a hope of its ultimate success, of the attempt to form a national association and unite all the discordant elements under the one broad banner of simple Spiritualism. دو Magnetism and Mediumistic Science. -In Spain as in Italy, a considerable amount of attention has been directed towards the unfoldment of Mediumistic power by means of Magnetism. Magnetic Societies abounded in Spain up to within the last few years, when many elements of internal discord prevailed in the ranks, and succeeded in dissolving the bonds which had united flourishing associations. Amongst the amateur mesmerists of Spain may be mentioned Don Juan Escudero, of Madrid, a gentleman who having witnessed some experiments in "animal magnetism" in California, tried its effect in his own family with success.. 66 Among the numerous circles or groups" formed in the different parts of Spain for the study of Spiritualism and its phenomena, was one of long standing at Tarragona called The Christian Circle," Quite recently the President of this circle sent the following communication to the Revue Spirite of Paris:-"The convict prison here in Tarragona has 800 inmates sentenced to forced labour By some means, Spiritualistic books have been introduced among the prisoners. The circulation of these books among them has been the means of bringing seventy or eighty of them to be believers in our doctrine. These converts have ceased to regard their miserable position Spain "Not from their old point of view; they no longer entertain schemes of revolt against the authorities. They endure their lot with resignation under the influence of the teaching that this world is but a preliminary stage to another, where, if repentant of the ill they have done, and seeking the good of others, they will be better off than here. long since one of these men died; at his death he declined. the established offices of the prison priest, on the ground that he was a Spiritualist and did not need them. The priest then discovered that Spiritualism was a subject of discussion with many of the prisoners. He made a representation of the matter to his bishop, who made formal complaint of it to the commandant of the prison, and the commandant made an investigation. In the end a particular prisoner was selected for punishment in the form of an additional weight of fetters. This coming to the knowledge of the Spiritualists of Tarragona, Barcelona, and Lerida, they had a meeting upon the subject and delegated one of their number, a man of position, to interview the commandant. The representations which he made, led the commandant to cancel his order as to the additional fetters. The bishop's censure against spiritualist books placed them under prohibition, which was maintained. It is known, however, that although never found by gaolers, the books are still there." In April, 1881, the editor of the Madrid El Criterio says:- "that great progress has been made in the cause of Spiritualism; that the hall of meeting of the Spiritual Society is completely full every Thursday evening,' and is not now large enough to hold the public who come to the sessions,' that Dr. Merschejewski has called the attention of the University of St. Petersburg to a psychometric phenomena of much importance; to wit: A young man. deemed from childhood to be an idiot, who will in some seconds solve any mathematical problem, while if a poem be read to him, even of many hundred verses, he will repeat the whole of it without failing in a single word." Señor Manuel Lopez in the same issue of El Criterio says, speaking of the progress of a society of Spiritualists in Madrid: "We have received a mediumistic work of extraordinary merit, executed by a medium of the Society of Spiritualists' of Zaragoza. It consists of a portrait of Isabel the Catholic, made with a pencil, and is a work truly admirable. It is said by intelligent persons who have examined it to be an exact copy of one preserved in the Royal Museum of Painters of this court. Many thanks are tendered to the Zaragozan Society for this highly appreciated present. It was about the end of the year 1880, that the Spiritualists of Spain sustained another series of attacks from the Church. The first of these was the refusal of the clergy to accord the customary rites of interment to the remains of two ladies, both of irreproachable character, and good standing in society, but both guilty" of having believed in Spiritual manifestations. The second raid which the Church in Spain perpetrated about this time to the prejudice of the Spiritualists, was the suppression of a well-written Spiritual paper published at Lerida, entitled El Buen Sentido. The Bishop of Lerida had long threatened this step, and warned the editor to beware how he presumed to allow any writings reflecting upon clerical doings to appear in his columns. As some of the principal. contributors were Madame Soler, Mdlle. Sans, Don Murillo, and others equally capable of arraigning the intolerant acts which Church policy seemed determined to push against the Spiritualists, it was scarcely likely that the Bishop's threats would produce much effect. The last article which seemed to inflame the clergy to retaliate was an indignant protest which appeared in the columns of this paper on the condemnation of a working man to three years' imprisonment, leaving a family of children destitute and all for 66 "The speaking in public against the intolerance of the Church. In a number of El Criterio, dated 1881, is a letter from Don Migueles, in which he gives a somewhat discouraging account of "the cause" as it recently existed in Spain. The editor says:-" Don Migueles visited many cities to examine into the state of affairs of a spiritual nature, but found many who were only to be enticed by physical phenomena, caring nothing for the esoteric beauties of our faith; many who were convinced that they knew all there was to be known concerning it, and others who were timid fearing the disapproval of neighbours. In some places, however, excellent mediums were discovered. In Santiago, in Oviedo, in Corunna and Valladolid, an exceptional interest was manifest. Near Santiago, there was a young girl possessed of wonderful faculties. Two bars of magnetized iron held over her horizontally, half a metre distant, were sufficient to suspend her body in the air. proceedings of the Spanish Society, under the name of the Sesiones de Controversio, in the month of April last, are spoken of in the Critic as markedly impressive on account of the lofty sentiments maintained throughout the discussions, by the various speakers. 'In the past month were given also very interesting conferencias by our illustrious brothers, the Sres. Rebolledo and Huelbes.' The able engineer and inventor, belonging to the Society of Santiago de Chili and founder of that of Lima, D. R. Caruana y Berard, has just arrived in Madrid. The Revista Espiritista of Barcelona mentions the visit which its editor has made to the central societies of Spiritualists of Sabodell and Tarrasa, where a great number of brethren were assembled on the occasion, and which will result in great good to the doctrine." The Barcelona Lux, of date 1881, gives encouraging accounts of séances held at Cordova, Tarragona, Seville, and many other places. The editor, Madame Soler, also refers to the prohibition to Catholics, by an archbishop to have or to read the Spiritualistic work of Niram Aliv: of the "Society of Spiritualists" of Tarrasa; of the circle of Santa Cruz of Tenerif; of that of Faith, Hope, and Charity," of Andujar, and of St. Vincent de Bogota. 66 Speal Bone, Divination by: A form of divination used in Scotland. A speal bone, or blade bone of a shoulder of mutton is used, but details of the method are wanting. A common soldier, accompanying Lord Loudon on his retreat to Skye, told the issue of the battle of Culloden at the very moment it was decided, pretending to have seen the event by looking through the bone. Speers, Dr.: (See Moses, William Stainton.)
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
2026 Editor's Note: This page uses language about other peoples, religions, or nationalities that was commonplace when the book was published and is offensive by today's standards. The text has been left exactly as it was printed, rather than cut or softened, so that the historical record — including how ordinary such language once was — is preserved. (Ed: ET 2026-07-22) a kingdom in the S. W. of Europe, forming with Portugal the great S. W. peninsula of Europe. It is separated from France on the N. E. by the chain of the Pyrenees, and is otherwise bounded by Portugal and the Atlantic and Mediterranean. In greatest breadth N. and S. it measures 540 miles; greatest length E. and W., 620 miles. Continental area, 190,055 square miles. Including the 'Canary and Balearic islands and north and west African possessions, 194,- 783 square miles. Pop., about 20,400,000. The war with the United States deprived her of Cuba, Porto Rico, the Philippine and Sulu islands, and Guam; and a treaty with Germany, Feb. 8, 1899, of the Marianne (or Ladrone), rone), Caroline, and Pelew islands. On Nov. 8, 1900, Spain sold the islands of Cagayan and Sibutu to the United States for $100,000. Her last remaining colonies are in Africa with pop. 292,000. Spain formerly comprised the ancient kingdoms and provinces of New and Old Castile, Leon, Asturias, Galicia, Estremadura, Andalusia, Aragon, Murcia, Valencia, Cata- Ionia, Navarre, and the Basque Provinces. These since 1854, for administrative purposes, have been divided into 49 provinces, including the Balearic and Canary islands. The capital is Madrid; next in population are Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, and Malaga. Physical Features. The coast line is not much broken, but sweeps round in gentle curves, presenting few remarkable headlands or indentations. The interior is considerably diversified, but its characteristic feature is its central table-land, which has an elevation of from 2,200 to 2,800 feet, and a superficial extent of not less than 90,000 square miles. It descends gradually on the W. toward Portugal; but on the E., toward the provinces of Catalonia and Valencia, it presents an abrupt steep or line of cliffs, with the character of an ancient sea margin. It is bounded on the N. by the Asturian and Cantabrian mountains, reaching an elevation of about 8,500 feet; on the S. by the Sierra Morena; and is crossed from E. to W. by the Douro, Tagus, and Guadiana rivers. Between these limits it is intersected by two important ranges of mountains running nearly E. and W., the N. being the Guadarrama with its continuations, separating the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, and attaining in one of its peaks a height of 8,200 feet; and the S., the Sierra de Toledo and its continuation between the Tagus and the Guadiana. S. of the Sierra Morena is the valley of the Guadalquivir river. Besides these ranges there is the chain of the Pyrenees, which, though partly belonging to France, presents its boldest front to Spain and has its loftiest summits within it. The highest peak in the ranges is La Maladetta or Pic de Nethou (11,165 feet); but the highest peak in Spain is Mulhacen (11,420 feet), belonging to the Sierra Nevada in the S. The latter chain possesses some of the wildest scenery in Europe. The chief rivers enter the Atlantic, but in the N. E. is the Ebro, a tributary of the Mediterranean. The Douro, Tagus, and Guadiana belong partly to Portugal. The lakes are few and unimportant. Minerals. The whole country teems with mineral wealth, the minerals including in greater or less quantities gold, silver, quicksilver, lead, copper, iron, zinc, calamine, antimony, tin, coal, etc. The exploitation of the minerals has, however, in recent times been mostly accomplished by foreign capital, while most of the ore is exported to foreign countries in its raw state. The quantity and value of the principal minerals produced in 1918 was as follows: Anthracite coal, 377,216 metric tons, valued at 21,226,434 pesetas; copper, 1,007,668 metric tons, valued at 19,121,- 407 pesetas; iron, 4,692,651 metric tons, valued at 52,889,055 pesetas; bituminous coal, 6,134,986 metric tons, valued at 341,251,718 pesetas; lignite coal, 726,848 metric tons, valued at 26,581,717 pesetas; lead, 216,133 metric tons, valued at 60,751,403 pesetas. Other mineral products are asphalt, mercury, sulphur, zinc, phosphate, manganese, silver, salt, and wolfram. There are about 135,000 persons engaged in the mineral industry. The total value of the output of 1918 was 545,916,704 pesetas. Climate. The climate varies much in different localities. On the elevated table-land it is both colder in winter and hotter in summer than usual under the same latitude. In the plains and on the coasts the hot summer is followed by a cold rainy season, terminating in April in a beautiful spring. The mean temperature at Malaga in summer is 77° F., in winter 57°; at Barcelona 77° and 50°; and at Madrid 75° and 44.6°. The rainfall is small; in the interior between 8 and 12 inches per annum. In some parts of the S. the climate is almost tropical. The hot S. wind of Andalusia, known as the solano, and the cold N. wind called the gallego, are peculiar to Spain. Vegetable Products and Agriculture.- About one-sixth of the acreage is under wood; the more remarkable trees being the Spanish chestnut and several varieties of oak, and in particular the cork oak. Fruits are extremely abundant, and include, in addition to apples, pears, cherries, plums, peaches, and apricots, the almond, date, fig fig, orange, citron, olive, and pomegranate; and in the lower districts of the S. the pineapple and banana. The culture of the vine is general, and great quantities of wine are made, both for home consumption and exportation. The more important farm crops are wheat, rice, maize, barley and legumes. In the S. cotton and the sugar cane are grown. Hemp and flax, esparto, the mulberry for rearing silk worms, saffron, licorice, are also to be mentioned. The only large animals in a wild state are the wolf, common in all the mountainous districts, and the bear and chamois, found chiefly in the Pyrenees. Domestic animals include the merino sheep in great numbers, horses, mules, asses, horned cattle, and pigs. The chief agricultural products in 1919 were as follows: Wheat, 77,- 660,040 cwt.; barley, 33,946,488 cwt.; oats, 9,597,534 cwt.; rye, 12,295,808 cwt.; maize, 14,920,464 cwt. Other important products are rice, beans, kidney beans, peas, lentils, and tares. In 1919 3,300,- 965 acres were employed in grape cultivation. The production was 7,914,252,- 192 pounds of grapes, yielding 543,- 904,788 gallons of wine. There are about 4,000,000 acres devoted to olive culture. The other important products are esparto, flax, hemp, and pulse. There are important industries connected with the preparation of wine and fruits. Silk culture is carried on in Valencia, Murcia, and other provinces. There are about 30 sugar cane factories and about 40 beet root sugar factories. Manufactures and Commerce. The manufactures of Spain are not as a whole important, but considerable advances have been made in recent times. The most important industries are the manufacture of cotton, woolens and linens, cutlery and metal goods, paper, silk, leather, tobacco, and cigars, besides wine, flour, and oil. There are about 750 concerns engaged in the manufacture of cotton. These employ about 70,000 looms with about 2,700,000 spindles. In woolen manufacture there are about 9,000 looms with about 665,000 spindles. The paper-making industry is of importance. The There are about 150 paper mills engaged in the making of writing, printing, packing, and cigarette paper. Other important industries are glass making and the manufacture of corks. The total imports in 1918 were valued at $24,394,077. The exports were valued at £37,917,084. The chief articles of import were cotton and its manufactures, foodstuffs, machinery, tobacco, gold, animals, wool, hair and silk. The chief articles of export are food stuffs and wine, metals and their manufactures, drug and chemical products, cotton and its manufactures, wool and its manufactures, timber and its manufactures, and animals and their products. The total value of wine exported in 1918 was £3,725,137. The larger number of imports are received from the United States, the United Kingdom, and The chief exports are to France. France, United Kingdom, and the United States. Transportation. There are about 10,- 000 miles of railway, of which about 7,000 are of normal gauge and about 4,000 of varying gauges. In October, 1919, the first underground electric railway service in Spain was inaugurated in Madrid, which covers a distance of about 5 miles. The railway systems belong to private companies but are nearly all subsidized by the government. There are about 70,000 miles of telegraph line and there is wireless connection with all important countries. The merchant navy consisted in 1919 of 475 steamers of 691,328 tons net, and 448 sailing vessels of 74,970 tons net. The chief shipping centers are Bilbao and Barcelona. Finances. The total revenue in 1919 was 1,648,800,000 pesetas, and the expenditure 2,065,065,000 pesetas. The estimated revenue in 1920-21 was 1,962,- 830,000 pesetas, and the estimated expenditure 2,373,155,000 pesetas. The national debt on January 1, 1920, amounted to 12,026,280,212 pesetas. Education. A very large proportion of the population is illiterate. In 1910, the last date for which authoritative statistics are available, nearly 60 per cent. could neither read nor write. Education is nominally obligatory, but the law is not strictly enforced. There are about 27,000 public schools and about 6,000 private schools. The total number of pupils is about 2,700,000. Public and primary schools are supported by the government, which spent in 1918 43,726,597 pesetas for educational purposes. Secondary education is carried on in institutions or middle class schools, of which there must be at least one in every province. There are about 60 of these institutions, with about 55,000 pupils. There are 11 universities, whi which were attended by about 25,000 students. These universities are at Barcelona, Granada, Madrid, Murcia, Oviedo, Salamanca, Santiago, Seville, Valencia, Valladolid, and Saragossa. In addition there is a medical school at Cadiz and one in the Canary Islands. Army and Navy. - Military service is compulsory for a total period of 18 years. A general staff was established in 1916. The country is divided into 8 territorial districts, each under a captain-general. The peace strength of the army in 1920 was fixed at 216,649 men of all ranks. Of these, about 65,000 were in Morocco. The army is organized into 16 divisions, each including two brigades of infantry and one of artillery. There is a corps of aviators and the service in military aviation has been reorganized on a large scale. The navy consists of three dreadnoughts, one pre-dreadnought, and cruisers. seven There were in 1920, in addition to 13 destroyers, 26 modern torpedo boats, A number of and 12 gun boats. cruisers, destroyers, submarines, and other similar vessels were under construction in 1921. The total strength of the navy is about 10,500 sailors and about 4,500 marines. Government.- By the constitution of 1876 Spain is declared a constitutional monarchy, with executive power vested in the king, and the legislative power in the Cortes with the king. The Cortes consists of a Senate and Congress. The Senate is composed of three classes: Those who sit by right of birth or official position, members nominated by the crown (these two classes not numbering more than 180 together), and 180 elected by the largest taxpayers of the kingdom and certain corporate bodies. The Congress contains 417 deputies, elected by citizens of 25 years of age who have enjoyed full civil rights in any municipality for two years. Voting is compulsory for males of 25 or over. Each province has its own parliament, and each commune its own elected ayuntamiento presided over by the alcalde, for municipal and provincial administration. People and Religion. The people of Spain are of very mixed origin, the most ancient inhabitants, the Iberians (now represented probably by the Basques or Biscayans of the N. E.), being afterward mingled with Celts, Phœnicians, and Carthaginians, Roman colonists, Goths, Jews, and Arabs or Moors. They are generally of medium height and of spare habit, with black hair, dark eyes, and sallow complexion. Under the constitution the state binds itself to maintain the Roman Catholic religion, but a restricted liberty of worship is permitted to Protestants, of whom, however, there are very few. There are nine archbishops, the Archbishop of Toledo being primate. Houses for monks no longer exist, having been abolished by law in 1841. History. Spain was first known to the Phœnicians, subsequently to the Carthaginians, and, in the 3d century B. C., to the Romans. It was completely subdued under Augustus, after which it enjoyed tranquillity for nearly 400 years. This state of peace was disturbed by the irruption of the Northern barbarians, the Suevi, the Vandals, and the Alani. Christianity was introduced about the end of the 6th century; the invasion of the Moors took place in the beginning of the 8th; and they overran the whole country except the Asturias. They were finally expelled in 1492. Under Charles V., Spain made a great figure in the general affairs of Europe. He reigned 40 years, and in 1556 abdicated in favor of his son, Philip II., who died in 1598 and bequeathed to his successor, Philip III., Belgium, Naples, Sicily, and Portugal. Charles II., the last prince of the Austrian branch, reigned from 1665 to 1700; after which began the well-known war for the succession to the Spanish dominions, in which the claim of Austria was supported by the grand alliance against Louis XIV. Notwithstanding the opposition of the Allies, however, the grandson of Louis XIV. reigned in Spain, relinquishing the Belgic provinces to the house of Austria. Philip V., the first king of the French line, had a long and turbulent reign. After him Ferdinand VI., a prudent prince, introduced various reforms and maintained peace, but dying in 1759 his son, Charles III., went to war with Great Britain. Peace ensued in 1763 and continued till 1778, when Spain, at first neutral in the American War of Independence, was prevailed on to take up arms against England, and obtained, at the peace of 1783, the Floridas and the island of Minorca. Charles IV. succeeded to the crown in 1788, became soon after a party to the coalition against Republican France; but was, after Prussia, the first of the Great Powers to conclude a treaty of peace, in 1795. In little more than a year afterward, the cabinet of Spain joined its late opponent and declared war against England. The abdication of the royal family of Spain took place at Bayonne in May, 1808. It was followed by the general resistance of the inhabitants, by the invasion of their country by Napoleon I., and by the subsequent expulsion of the French by the troops of Great Britain combined with those of Portugal and Spain. The dissatisfaction and indignation excited by the tyrannical proceedings of Ferdinand led, in the beginning of 1820, to a revolution of great importance, by which the constitution of the Cortes, as established in 1812, was restored, and such salutary restraints established on the power of the crown as seemed best calculated for securing the rights of the people. In 1823 Spain was again invaded by French troops under the Duke d'Angoulême, whose object was to put down the new government and to restore Ferdinand to absolute power. They penetrated the country without resistance; and having laid siege to Cadiz, the king was given up to them, and afterward the town. În 1833, on the death of Ferdinand VII., the queenmother, Christina, was appointed queen-regent during the minority of her daughter Isabella, to whom, by his will, he bequeathed his throne. On this, Don Carlos, the late king's brother, laid claim to the crown, when a civil war which lasted till 1840 ensued. In that year the partisans of Don Carlos were finally defeated. The next event of importance was the contest between Espartero, the regent, and the Queen-Dowager Christina, for the supreme power during the minority of the queen. Espartero was successful from 1840 to 1843, but was compelled to flee before O'Donnell and Narvaez, and was not restored till 1847. Espartero's success obliged Christina to retire to France, whence she returned after his fall, Narvaez and the Moderados having control of the government. Isabella was now declared of age, married her cousin, Francis d'Assisi, and succeeded to the throne as Isabella II. During her reign the Liberals and Conservatives successively gained control of the government. The disputes finally ended in a successful revolt of the Liberals, the queen being obliged to fly to France, and the throne being offered in 1870 to Amadeus, a son of Victor Emanuel. Finding his task too difficult, he resigned in 1873. A republic was now formed, with Castelar as its leading spirit, but it was soon brought to an end, and the throne was offered in 1874 to Alfonso, the young son of the exiled Queen İsabella. Alfonso XII. died in 1885; and on the birth of a posthumous son, May 17, 1886, the regency was intrusted to his widow, Christina. In 1902 this son came to the throne under the title of Alfonso XIII. Long disturbed conditions in Cuba resulted, in 1898, in war with the United States. See SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR; CUBA. Alfonso became of age in 1902 and the regency was terminated. During the years following, changes in the cabinet occurred with great frequency. In 1904 closer relations were established with France, in regard to the common policy in Morocco. On May 31, 1906, King Alfonso married Princess Ena of Battenberg, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria of England. During 1908-09 there was an outbreak of anarchistic activities and an attempted revolution occurred at Barcelona. This led to the trial and execution of the Anarchist Ferrer. Several reforms in the religious system were undertaken and put into effect in 1910-11. At the outbreak of the World War, in 1914, Spain at once declared its neutrality and this was continued throughout the conflict. There was strong pressure brought to bear at various times to induce the government to take sides with either of the belligerents, and several changes in the cabinet were the result of these endeavors. When the war broke out a Conservative cabinet was in power. This was forced to resign in June, 1915, and was succeeded by a Liberal cabinet led by Count Romanones. The Liberals and their supporters demanded improvement in the economic conditions of the country, which resulted in 1915-16 in industrial disturbances throughout the country. There were strikes in Madrid, Valencia, and other industrial circles. These reached a crisis in 1916 when a general strike was declared. This was met promptly by the government with the declaration of martial law throughout the country. This resulted at once in an agreement on the part of the strikers to arbitrate their demands. In the beginning of 1917 a determined effort was made to bring Spain openly to the support of the Allies. This resulted in greatly increased activity on the part of the pro- German elements. The renewal of submarine warfare and the entrance of the
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
span, a kingdom of the Old World. Together with the kingdom of Portugal, it occupies the entire peninsula of southwestern Europe. Meiklejohn likens the shape to a "bull's hide nailed on a board, the neck at Gibraltar." The surface is for the greater part an elevated tableland from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the sea. The map shows no less than five peculiarly knotted mountain ranges running from east to west. The northern range faces the Bay of Biscay, extends eastward and becomes the Pyrenees, the boundary between France and Spain. The southern range is known as the Sierra Nevada, a name transferred by the Spaniards to our Pacific coast. The five ranges create four interior valleys or upland plains, from which rivers flow eastward to the Mediterranean or westward to the Atlantic. The key to the geography of Spain is the location of these parallel valleys. The chief towns are situated on the chief rivers, or their branches. Saragossa is to be associated with the Ebro; Seville, Cordova, and Granada with the Guadalquiver; Toledo and Madrid with the Tagus; Salamanca, Valladolid, and Segovia with the Douro. The coast is for the greater part bold. The seaports are Barcelona, Valencia, and Malaga on the Mediterranean; and Cadiz, Palos, and Corunna on the Atlantic, each at or above the mouth of a river. There are fever-breeding lagoons of brackish water on some parts of the coast, but the interior, though almost as mountainous as Switzerland, is without lakes of importance. In summertime many of the streams go dry. MINERALS. The mountains consist of almost all varieties of rock found in Europe,--granite, serpentine, sandstone, limestone, chalk, marl, and gypsum. They are rich in ores of gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, iron, iron pyrites, and zinc. There are also mines of coal. There were in 1901, not less than 2,291 productive mines. The silver mines of Alameda, reputed the oldest in Europe, are sixty miles northwest of Cordova. TIMBER. Though once well timbered, Spain is now scantily supplied with forests. Except in the coal districts, fuel is scarce and timber for building purposes expensive. The coast towns import coal. The most characteristic trees are the chestnut and cork oak. In the day of archery, Spanish yew was celebrated for bows. The great diversity of surface gives rise to a corresponding variety of plants. Botanists have collected no less than 5,000 flowering species. Many are not found elsewhere. The southern coast has many plants, as date palms, peculiar to Africa. The northern provinces only are cool enough to have grassy meadows and copses like those of north temperate countries. Salt steppe districts are frequent. A considerable area near Granada is covered with esparto grass. FAUNA. As to wild animals, the ibex and the brown bear are found in the Pyrenees. The fallow deer , porcupine, lynx, Spanish hare, fox, and weasel are characteristic animals still seen occasionally. Spain lies in the route of birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa. Song birds are numerous. Snipes, red-legged partridges, and quails are brought to market in season. Vultures watch for carrion on the plains, and eagles seek their prey in the mountains. Three-foot lizards and scorpions bask in the sun along the Mediterranean. In the vicinity of Madrid alone, butterfly collectors find 350 species, many of them rare or not found elsewhere. The streams are full of trout. The rivers and harbors abound in food fishes. AGRICULTURE. In spite of a decided lack of moisture, Spain is an agricultural country. Wheat ranks first as a food plant. Barley is the chief food for horses and mules. Rice and corn are raised in the southeast. Millet and sorghum are raised for forage. Hemp and flax are important crops in some districts. The mulberry tree and the silkworm thrive in the south. Fruit is abundant. Olives, apples, pears, cherries, plums, peaches, apricots, dates, figs, citrons, pomegranates, pineapples, and bananas are raised extensively, according to locality. Grapes grow everywhere. Malaga is the great grape export city of the world. Xeres is noted for sherry wine. Walnuts, chestnuts, and pistachios are abundant. CLIMATE. The climate of a large part of Spain is surprisingly like that of parts of Mexico and southwestern United States , in which the Spaniards planted colonies. Perhaps no other nation in the world has shown greater skill, industry, and patience in overcoming arid conditions. Irrigation has been managed for centuries. Water is conducted along the mountain sides in canals or across plains in arched aqueducts to water dry districts. As in our Southwest, districts too arid for cultivation are devoted to sheep and cattle raising. The merino sheep originated here. Dairy cattle are found only here and there. The famous animals used for bull-fighting are reared in the southern province of Andalusia. Sheep and goats are the most common domestic animals. There are four times as many mules and asses as horses. They are surefooted on the mountain roads and stand heat better. MANUFACTURES. The principal manufactures are cotton, woolen, and silk goods, paper, glass, corks, sugar, wine, and pottery. Although there are 8,300 miles of railway and several well built royal highways in the kingdom, it cannot be said that communication is easy or the carriage of goods inexpensive. Mountain trails and pack trains are still the only means of reaching a considerable portion of the population. POPULATION. The ancient inhabitants of Spain are represented by the modern Basques. The peninsula filled up with successive waves of Celts, Vandals, Goths, Suevi, Alans, and Visigoths. Spain was, in fact, a sort of land's end ,--a pocket in which the migrations spent themselves. Spain was the Land of Tarshish of Scripture. It was the battleground of the Carthaginians, Hannibal and Hamilcar, and the scene of the triumphs of Scipio Africanus. It is said that under the rule of the Roman Empire Spain had a greater population than at any time since. The extent to which it was colonized by Greeks and Romans may be inferred from the birth of Seneca, Martial, Lucan, Quintilian, and other distinguished Latin writers in that province. The remains of Roman works are still a marvel. HISTORICAL. In 711 Spain was conquered by the Moors (Arabs) of Africa. For eight centuries the Christians were subject to Arab rule--a rule, it must be confessed, far more liberal than that of the Spanish princes. Not only was the Christain religion tolerated, but Cordova, Saragossa, Toledo, Valencia, and Seville, seats of Moslem power, became centers of education and culture that ought to have put the Christians to shame. The Mohammedan universities of Spain attracted students from all Europe and were the most advanced in the western world. However, the contests between Moslem and Christian went on for centuries and afford the most spectacular picture of warfare in the history of the West. The last Moors, and with them the Jews, were not crushed or expelled until the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. A large part of the intelligence, industry, and manufacturing skill of the kingdom went with them, a loss from which Spain has never recovered fully. The Spanish people are naturally proud and haughty. In the sixteenth century they were the predominant political power in Europe and owned the greater part of the New World. Wealth flowed in without effort. The exploits of Pizarro, Cortez, Balboa, De Soto, and others led their countrymen to neglect home affairs and internal improvements. It is held that, as the fortunes of Spain rose abroad, the prosperity of the country at home actually decreased. Of late the foreign possessions have been reduced to the Balearic Isles in the Mediterranean, the Canary Isles in the Atlantic, and certain holdings on the coast of Africa. The country has begun to pick up and seems on the point of entering upon a new era of national prosperity. GOVERNMENT, ETC. Continental Spain has an area of 190,150 square miles. The population in 1900 was 18,618,086, a gain of 3,000,000 in forty years. The government is a constitutional monarchy. The capital is Madrid. The national church is Catholic. A few thousand Protestants are tolerated on condition that they worship in private. In 1857 a system of public instruction was ordered, but in 1900 only 26,000 public schools had been organized. As late as 1889 sixty-eight per cent of the population was unable to read and write. Twenty-five years earlier the rate of illiteracy was eighty per cent. There are nine universities with 16,000 students. The government is maintained chiefly by a direct tax on land, by customs, and by monopoly of tobacco and royalties on ore. The national coin is the peseta, nominally corresponding to a franc, worth five to a dollar. Andalusia is one of the most celebrated and characteristic provinces of Spain. It occupies the plain of the Guadalquiver. It is considered one of the granaries of Europe. It contains the ancient cities of Cadiz, Xeres, Seville, Malaga, Cordova, and Granada. It is rich in grain, wines, and fruit. It has mines. The inhabitants are graceful, eloquent, elegant in manner, given to song and dance and picturesque costume, but they are lazy, poor, and happy-quite content to remain so. The siesta or afternoon nap is a regular institution. At that hour the streets and houses are seemingly like those of a city of the dead. The Spanish language is soft and musical. It resembles the Italian. Three-fifths of the words of the peasantry are Latin; two-fifths are Moorish, Gothic, etc. Of European languages, Spanish ranks next to English in geographical extent. STATISTICS. The following statistics are the latest to be had from trustworthy sources: Land area, square miles 190,050 Population (1907) 19,712,585 Madrid 539,835 Barcelona 533,000 Valencia 213,530 Seville 148,315 Malaga 130,109 Murcia 111,539 Cartagena 99,871 Bilbao 83,306 Granada 75,900 Cadiz 69,382 Valladolid 68,789 Cordova 58,275 Number provinces 49 Members of state senate 360 Representatives 406 Salary of king $1,400,000 Bonded indebtedness $1,940,000,000 National revenue $200,000,000 Agricultural Products- Corn, bushels 30,000,000 Wheat, bushels 120,000,000 Oats, bushels 25,000,000 Rye, bushels 27,250,000 Barley, bushels 70,000,000 Potatoes, bushels 84,000,000 Rice, pounds 420,000,000 Wine, gallons 298,000,000 Olive oil, tons 5,000,000 Fishing boats 14,700 Exports $182,000,000 Imports $184,000,000 Exports of wine $14,000,000 Manufacturing Establishments- Cotton looms 68,300 Woolen looms 8,800 Paper mills 144 Glass factories 34 Corks, output in pounds 60,000,000 Sardine canneries 400 Lumber products $14,000,000 Mineral Output- Silver $200,000 Coal, tons 4,000,000 Iron ore, tons 10,000,000 Manganese, tons 41,000 Copper $13,000,000 Mercury, pounds 63,000,000 Sulphur, pounds 60,000,000 Lead, pounds 250,000,000 Domestic Animals- Horses 451,000 Asses 790,000 Mules 832,000 Cattle 2,452,000 Camels 2,250 Sheep 16,119,000 Goats 3,355,000 Swine 2,120,000 Miles of railway 9,195 Number postoffices 4,012 Percentage of illiteracy 75.0 Public schools 26,000 Pupils enrolled 2,000,000 See Alhambra ; Moors ; Isabella ; Columbus ; Seville ; Madrid ; Sherry ; Cork ; Cortes ; Cervantes ; Pyrenees ; Escorial ; Gibraltar ; Basques ; Merino ; Roland ; Charles V; ARMADA; CASTANETS; MURILLO; CUBA; PHILIPPINES; ECUADOR, etc. The people standing at the threshold of the twentieth century have viewed the collapse of the last important edifices in the Spanish colonial domain. Spain, after a reign of just about four hundred years over an empire on which the sun never set, retained, at the termination of the war with the United States, but a remnant of its vast realms. A detailed discussion of the reasons for the misfortunes suffered by the Spaniards in colonization is not necessary. In every epoch and region the seeds were sown to reap the whirlwind. Too centralized an administration, utter lack of self-government, corrupt officials, avaricious greed for quick returns at the sacrifice of future prospects, a restrictive commercial system, trade monopoly, erroneous economic doctrines, the admission of the church to an exaggerated share in public affairs, and general wastefulness of resources, accompanied with enormous taxation, are the elemental defects to which disaster was due. The crown always clung to the maxim that it was the right of the parent state to draw all possible benefit and advantage for itself from the colonies, irrespective of the interests of the latter. Conquest would more aptly designate its motive of action in taking possession of foreign territory. Whatever may have been the temporary objects, the results are clear; the record must inevitably be closed with the verdict of failure due to false policy and deplorable methods.-Morris, History of Colonization. Spanish-American War. A war between the United States and Spain was declared April 25, 1898. Hostilities ceased August 12, and a treaty of peace was concluded in December of the same year. Spain conceded the independence of Cuba and ceded Porto Rico , Guam, and the Philippines to the United States for $20,000,000. The war cost the United States $165,000,000; 360 American soldiers fell in battle and 2,604 died from disease. See Cuba ; Dewey ; Philippines; Manila ; Porto Rico ; Pensions 2026 Editor's Note: The Spain here is the morning after empire — 1898 stripped Cuba and the Philippines, and 'the Generation of '98' was writing the post-mortem. Civil war and Franco lay a generation ahead. See Restoration Spain . (Ed: BR 2026-07-11)