Sweden
2 of the 7 encyclopedias on this shelf carry an entry for Sweden. Both are reproduced below, so you can see where they agree and where they differ.
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
a kingdom of Europe occupying the eastern part of the Scandinavian peninsula . The native name is Sverige. The latitude of Sweden is about the same as that of Alaska. It has a direct coast line of 1,550 miles, which, by including gulfs and bays, is more than doubled in length. The surface slopes gradually to the east, and is approximately evenly divided between highland and lowland. The highest mountain peak is Mt. Kebnekaise, 7,024 feet high. One-tenth of the area is covered by lakes, the two largest being Vanern and Vattern. The largest waterfall in Europe is found in Sweden. It is called Njuomelaska. It consists of two cataracts of 103 feet with a descent of 150 feet more in the course of one and one-third miles. Two other falls in Sweden have a height of 100 feet or more. The largest river is the Tornea. ROCKS AND MINERALS. The fundamental rocks of the country are of three varieties: the gray gneiss, containing such minerals as the garnet and the graphite; the red iron gneiss, in which, however, no iron mines are found; and the granulite, containing Sweden's richest mineral deposits, which are iron ore, copper pyrites, and zinc blende. Many parts of the country abound in granite, sandstone, red and gray limestone, and greenstones. Mining is engaged in extensively, and the excellent iron ore obtained from the Swedish mines is largely used in the manufacture of the highest grade of steel tools. The mines at Dannemora are the most noted. CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. The climate is varied, being arctic in the extreme north and mild as the climate of middle Europe in the south. As a partial evidence of its salubrity, it may be stated that the average length of life is 52.3 years, and that the death rate is very low, being in 1907 only 1.46 per cent. Birch thrives as far north as the 69th parallel, pine and hemlock as far as the 65th, rye the 67th, oats the 65th, fruits the 65th, wheat the 63rd, elm, oak, and basswood the 61st. More than one-half of the entire area of the country is covered with valuable forests of fir, birch, and pine. Lumbering is a big industry, and lumber products are the chief articles of export. The lumber is especially noted for hardness and durability. ANIMALS. The animal life of Sweden shows almost as great a diversity as that which exists between Massachusetts and that of the Rocky Mountains . In the mountains of the extreme north, the wild reindeer, glutton, arctic fox, ptarmigan, and the bear may yet be found. The wolf and the fox sally out into the cultivated lands, particularly in the winter time. The lemming, various squirrels, the woodpecker, the wood grouse, as well as the roedeer and the reindeer, may be found in the forests. The field mouse, the dormouse, the hedgehog, together with the marten, the weasel, and the badger, are found in farming districts. Most of the perching and singing birds of Europe, including the cuckoo and the nightingale, nest in Sweden. Several owls, hawks, and eagles are common. The inland lakes and the coasts of the Baltic are noted for waterfowl. The woodcock, the snipe, and other wading birds are abundant. Flocks of swans, herons, cranes, ducks, and geese migrate to southern Sweden on their way to and from their northern nesting places. The rivers and lakes are well stocked with fish. The fisheries of the Baltic are noted for herring, codfish, and mackerel. In all, about one hundred forty kinds of fishes are found in Swedish waters. OCCUPATIONS. Agriculture is the leading industry of Sweden. The most common crops are oats, rye, barley, wheat, and potatoes. Much live stock is also raised. Butter is exported to Great Britain . Orchards are common. Almost one-third as much land as is devoted to agriculture is planted to orchards. Comparatively speaking, Sweden is not a manufacturing country, but iron works, woolen mills, and match factories are important factors in considering the occupation of the people. The railways also employ a large number of men, the railway system being very large in proportion to the population of the country. The trunk lines are owned by the state, but branch lines and short lines are as a rule built by private companies. A line built from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Norwegian coast is the first railroad of the world to cross the Arctic Circle . AREA AND POPULATION. The country is sixth in size of European states. The average population per square mile is about thirty-one, very nearly the same as for the world as a whole. The largest three cities are Stockholm, the capital (population 332,738), Gothenburg (population 160,523), and Malmo (population 79,817). Since 1851 the emigration from Sweden has been tremendous. About 22,000 have left their native shores annually. The bulk of this emigration has been to the United States , where the Swedes have settled mainly in the North Central States. Denmark, Norway, and Germany have also received small accessions from this stream of emigration. An attempt made in recent years to divert a part of this emigration to Argentina has not proved successful. About one-fifth of the loss in population sustained by emigration has been offset by immigration. GOVERNMENT. Sweden is a constitutional monarchy. The executive council consists of seven heads of departments and three consulting councilors, one of whom is president of the council. Its legislative body (Riksdagen) consists of two chambers, and meets annually. Members of the first chamber are elected for nine years and serve without pay. Members of the second chamber are elected for three years. The administration of justice is vested in lower courts of different rank. From these appeals may be taken to one of the three superior courts of the country. Further appeal may be taken to the supreme court, whose decisions are issued in the name of the king. The army in time of peace numbers about 21,500. Between the ages of twenty-one and twenty-five every able-bodied man must spend a certain time each year in camp learning the art of war. The largest vessel in the navy is Oscar II, built in 1907. The money unit of the country is the krona, worth about twenty-six cents of American money. EDUCATION. Elementary education is compulsory, and the laws are strictly enforced. The percentage of illiteracy is very low. Secondary schools are established in the populous centers. The country supports two universities, one at Upsala, founded in 1477, generously endowed by Gustavus, Adolphus, and the other at Lund, founded in 1668. Besides these, there are a number of other government schools, such as normal schools, technical schools, agricultural schools, schools for the blind, the deaf and mute, and naval and military academies. An institution, known as the Swedish Academy, limited to eighteen members, is charged with the function of promoting the development of the Swedish language and its literature. HISTORY. The early history of Sweden dates back to a period before the beginning of the Christian era. The northern part of the country was peopled by the Svea, or Swedes, and the southern by the Gota, or Goths. The latter appear to have been an offshoot of the former. The Goths were migratory, adventurous, and warlike; the Swedes restless, courageous, and indomitable. Gradually the Swedes established their supremacy in the country, and bands of Goths at different times migrated to Germany and Russia, and their descendants in turn invaded the Roman empire. The government of the country was tribal, and for hundreds of years these tribal chieftains were at war with one another. At the time of the age of the vikings (800-1000), when sea rovers from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark plundered the coasts of France, Germany, Italy, England, Scotland, and Ireland, some of the more powerful chieftains conquered adjoining territory and built up small kingdoms. Such kingdoms centered around places like Upsala and Lund. The Upsala kings were the first to succeed in building up a native kingdom. The Danes overwhelmed the southern kingdom with Lund as its capital, and maintained their supremacy there for many centuries. Christianity was introduced into Sweden during the middle of the ninth century by St. Ansgar. A struggle between Christianity and paganism followed which lasted for almost 300 years. During the next 400 years interest centers around the Crusades, two of which were undertaken against the pagan Finns, civil wars between rival houses for the throne, and the union of the three Scandinavian countries for a period of two hundred years with Denmark at its head. Beginning with 1521 Sweden achieved its independence of Denmark under the leadership of Gustavus Vasa. During the reign of this great king the Reformation was established, and the country made independent of the Hanseatic League. Fifty years of internal struggles largely inspired by religious controversy followed, and the grandson of Vasa the Great, Gustavus Adolphus, became the king of Sweden. His varied activities during a short reign of eleven years include the organization of the judiciary, the reorganization of the army, the extension of commerce, the colonization of Delaware, the founding of a college at Vesteras, the endowment of the University of Upsala, and the military leadership of the Protestant cause during the critical period of the Thirty Years' War. After his death his able minister of state, Axel Oxenstjerna, brought to a partial realization, at least, many of his policies; and as a result, Sweden became for almost 100 years after the peace of Westphalia one of the great powers of Europe. The loss of territory on account of the unfortunate wars in which Charles XII became involved reduced Swedish influence on the continent, and the cost of a series of wars which lasted almost eighteen years drained the country of its resources, so that Sweden, weak in spirit and shorn of strength, was compelled to retire from her position of eminence and power. As the unnerved nation gradually recovered its balance, governmental autocracy was curtailed, principally through the wise measures of the able president of the king's council, Count Arvid Horn; economic conditions were improved by the introduction of manufacturing enterprises, largely due to the efforts of the Swedish philanthropist, Jonas Alstromer; scientific knowledge was diffused through such men as Polhem, Swedenborg, and Linnaeus; and the nobility was checked in its oppression of the common people by Gustavus III. As Sweden became involved in the Napoleonic wars, she suffered the loss of Finland, but at the close of the wars she was reimbursed by receiving Norway. The Norwegians, however, did not accept their transfer from Denmark to Sweden without a struggle, but after a military demonstration by the Swedish king and an offer of arbitration, the union of the two countries was effected in 1814. This union lasted until 1905, when Norway effected a peaceful dissolution and established an independent kingdom. During the latter half of the nineteenth century a brilliant galaxy of men added luster to the Swedish name. The chemist, Jacob Berzelius, the botanists, Agardh and Fries, the zoologist and archaeologist, Sven Nilsson, the inventor, John Ericsson, and the sculptor, Fogelberg, made valuable contribution to the world's progress along their respective lines. Among eminent men who at the present time are engaged in enterprises which are of interest to the world at large are Sven Hedin, the explorer of the Himalaya mountains, and C. Skottsberg, who has achieved distinction for his geological and botanical expedition to Magellan's Land. Of late years the discontent of the common people with their political conditions has affected the economic condition of the country seriously.--S. A. CHALLMAN. STATISTICS. The following statistics are the latest to be had from trustworthy sources: Land are, square miles (1906) 172,876 Population (est. 1907) 5,377,713 Stockholm 332,738 Goteborg 161,000 Malmo 78,000 Upsala 25,000 Lund 20,000 Number counties (lan) 25 Members of first chamber 150 Members of second chamber 230 Salary of King Gustav V $475,000 Assessed valuation of property $1,700,000,000 Bonded indebtedness (railway construction) $115,000,000 Land under plow, percentage 8.9 Land in forest, percentage 51.9 Agricultural Products-- Wheat, bushels 5,700,000 Oats, bushels 65,800,000 Rye, bushels 21,000,000 Barley, bushels 12,600,000 Potatoes, bushels 45,000,000 Domestic Animals-- Horses 555,000 Cattle 2,600,000 Sheep 1,051,000 Swine 872,000 Fowls 3,547,000 Miles of railway (1908) 8,218 Manufacturing establishments, 1906 11,804 Operatives 295,808 Output of manufactures $350,000,000 Output of cotton goods $7,000,000 Output of woolen goods $10,000,000 Output of paper $11,000,000 Lumber products $70,000,000 Coal mined, tons 305,338 Iron ore, tons 4,478,917 Output of pig iron, tons 417,000 Exports (1906) $125,000,000 Imports $141,000,000 Teachers in public schools 19,255 Postoffices 3,648 Letters, post-cards, etc. (1907) 389,000,000 See Goths ; Gustavus Vasa; Gustavus Adolphus; Thirty Years' War ; Gustavus Iii; Charles Xii; Swedenborg ; Linnaeus ; Berzelius ; Ericsson ; John ; Hedin; Sven; Tegner ; Esaias; Lagerlof ; Selma
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
a kingdom of northern Europe comprising with Norway and Lapland the whole of the Scandinavian peninsula, of which it forms the E., S., and most important portion; having N. E. Russian Finland; E. and S. the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic; S. W. the Sound, Cattegat, and Skagerrack; and W. and N. Norway, from which it is for the most part divided by the great mountain chain of Scandinavia. Length N. to S. 950 miles; average breadth about 190 miles; area 173,035 square miles; pop. (1918) 5, 813,850. Capital, Stockholm; pop. 408,- 456. Topography-Sweden is divided into ree principal regions: Gæthland three (Gothia) in the S.; Sweden proper, occupying the center; and Norland (by far the largest part), comprising the remainder. These three regions are again subdivided into 24 lans, or districts. Sweden is mountainous in the W., but, in general, flat; and it is remarkable that along the whole road from Gottenburg in the W., to Stockholm in the E., there is not a single acclivity of consequence till within a few miles of the latter. Climate-The climate is less severe than might be expected in so high a latitude. In Stockholm the average temperature throughout the years degrees higher than at St. Petersburg. The summers are hot, and spring is almost unknown. In the N., snow covers the ground for 5 or 6 months in the year; and the W. coasts are milder and more humid than the E. Rivers The rivers are numerous. The principal are the Dal and the Klar rising in the mountains bordering on Norway, and flowing into the Gulf of Bothnia and the lake of Wener. The Angerman, the Umea, the Skeleftea, the Pitea, the Lulea, and the Tornea, are in Lapland. Lakes-Nearly one-eighth of the country is covered with lakes. The largest are the Wener, Wetter, and the Malar, all in the S. provinces. In point of size Wener is the third lake in Europe. Forests. There are extensive forests. More than 3 parts of the country are under timber. The principal trees are fir, birch, with oak, elm, and beech in the more S. parts. Zoology. The domestic animals are the same as those of Great Britain. The others are hares and foxes, beavers, wolves and, in the cold provinces of the N., bears, the lemming and the reindeer. Water fowl are abundant and the mosquitoes are as troublesome as they are in tropical countries. Agriculture.- Sweden is essentially an agricultural country. About 50 per cent. of the people are engaged in agricultural pursuits. There are about 450,000 farms under cultivation. The area and yield of the principal crops in 1919 was as follows: Wheat, 140,913 hectares, production 258,792 tons; rye, 372,068 hectares, production 586,689 tons; barley, 166,672 hectares, production 280,678 678 tons; oats, 712,372 hectares, production 1,111,730 112,5 tons; mixed corn, 260,782 hectares, production 475,749 tons; peas, beans, etc., 44,748 hectares, production 67,756 tons; potatoes, 168,689 hectares, production 2,111,213 tons; sugar beet and fodder roots, 127,650 hectares, production 3,838,- 372 tons; hay, 1,342,878 hectares, production 4,300,969 tons. There were in 1920 about 720,000 horses and about 2,- 600,000 head of cattle. Industries. - The chief industries are related to the mining and production of minerals and metals, and to lumbering and dairying. In the north are found the chief iron ore mines and important sawmills. The production of iron and steel is found chiefly in central Sweden. Among specialized products are the manufacture of cream separators, lighthouse apparatus, motors and electrical machinery. The manufacture of porcelain and glass is also important, as are timber and woodworking industries. Among the industries are the following, 4 with the value of output in kroners: Bar iron and steel works, 500,850,759; mechanical workshops, 496,073,165; iron and steel goods factories, 191,488,782; flour and grain mills, 131,924,056; shoe factories, 112,340,571. There are about 300,000 men, about 60,000 women, about 40,000 boys, and about 15,000 girls employed in the factories of the country. Commerce. - The imports for 1917 were £41,773,733 and the exports £76,- 465,387. The chief articles of import were minerals, chiefly coal, metal goods and machinery, animals, textile manufactures, and hair, hides and other animal products. The principal export were wood, pulp, paper, and paper manufactures, metals, timber, metal goods, and minerals. Prior to the World War Germany took the greater part of the exported goods. The second place was occupied by Great Britain, the third by History. - The two kingdoms, Gothland Norway, and the fourth by Denmark. The imports were chiefly from Germany, Denmark, the United States, Great Britain, Norway and the Netherlands. Transportation. There are about 10,railway in the country, of 000 miles of which about 3,400 belong to the state. There are about 50,000 miles of telegraph wire and about 400,000 miles of telephone wire. There are over 1,000 merchant marine sailing vessels in the and nearly 20,000 steam and motor vessels. Education. There are about 20,000 elementary schools, with about 25,000 teachers and 715,000 pupils. In 1918 there were 77 public secondary schools, with 26,313 pupils; 49 people's high schools, with 2,976 pupils; 15 normal schools for elementary teachers; and elementary technical schools, navigation decessors. In 1809 this last monarch enschools, military schools, agricultural schools, and other special schools. An elementary education is compulsory and at Upsala and free. The universities are at at Lund. There are also private universities at Stockholm and at other cities. Finance. The revenues and expenditures in 1920 balanced at £38,981,167, The public debt amounted to £59,811,509. Army and Navy. - Military service is by a voluntary universal but is aided led enlisted personnel. Liability to service begins at the age of 20 and lasts till the end of the 42d year. The field army consists of 6 divisions, with a total peace strength in 1920 of 86,507. The total number of military age is about 650,000. The navy is entirely a coast defense force. It includes 13 vessels, varying from 3,700 to 7,180 tons. In addition there were in 1920 10 destroyers, about 50 torpedo boats, and about 14 submarines. Government. A constitutional monarchy. The King of Sweden, formerly also King of Norway, must be a member of the Lutheran Church. His person is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and make peace, and grant pardon to condemned criminals. He nominates to all appointments, both military and civil; concludes foreign treaties, and has a right to preside in the supreme court of justice. The king has an absolute veto against any decrees of the Diet, and possesses legislative power in matters of provincial administration and police. In all other respects, the fountain of law is the Diet. This Diet, or Congress of the realm, consists of two chambers, or estates, both elected by the people, but representing different interests. M and Svealand, of which Sweden once consisted, were united in the 13th century by the failure of the royal line in the former. In 1397 by the treaty of Calmar to Margaret of Denmark, who has been styled the , Sweden became subject Semiramis of the North, and who joined the three kingdoms in one. Gustavus Vasa asserted the independence of Sweden and ascended the throne in 1521. He bequeathed the crown to his posterity, who continued to reign, and in general with distinction; but most of them, and in particular, Gustavus Adolphus, his daughter Christina, Charles XII., and Gustavus III., discovered a romantic spirit approaching, in the case of Charles XII., to a degree of infatuation. This dynasty ended in a prince (Gustavus IV.) who had all the eccentricity and hardly any of the talents of his pregaging in undertakings totally beyond the resources of his people, was deposed; and next year Marshal Bernadotte of France was elected crown prince, and in 1818 as Charles John XIV., ascended the throne. In 1814 Norway was annexed to Sweden (see NORWAY). In 1857 Charles XV. succeeded his father, Oscar I., and died in 1872, leaving the crown to his son, Oscar II., who reigned thirtyfive years. During the reign of Oscar II. many important measures of economic and social reform were adopted. These included accident insurance for workingmen, limitation of working hours for women and children, and factory legislation. In 1905 the union between Norway and Sweden was peaceably diss dissolved. (See NORWAY.) King Oscar died in 1907 and was succeeded by his son, Gustavus V. In 1909 a bill establishing manhood suffrage for elections to the Lower House, and effecting changes in the qualifications for the members of the Upper House, was passed. At the outbreak of the World War in 1914, Sweden declared her neutrality. On December 18, 1914, a conference was held at Malmö, in which the kings of Sweden, Norway and Denmark took part. As a result of this meeting an agreement to defend the neutrality of these countries and to protect their economic interests, was made. During the early par part of 1915 the Swedish Government complained to Great Britain against the arbitrary detention and interference with neutral vessels bound for Sweden. Great Britain based its action on the claim that contraband in large quantities had been imported into Germany by way of Sweden. In order to avoid complications, the Swedish Government published a de- Cyc- Vol. IX cree prohibiting exportation to any belligerent country of war munitions or of any material which might be used in their manufacture. A second conference between the rulers of the Scandinavian countries was held in February, 1915. A protest was published ed against the creation of a war zone by Germany. Throughout the progress of the war there were complaints against both sides on the part of Sweden for alleged violation of her neutrality. In January, 1916, the king urged the strengthening of the Swedish military establishment in order that the country might be prepared against any possible violation of its neutrality. As a result of the Russian revolution in 1917, new problems were faced by Sweden. Chief of these were the recognition of the new republic of Finland. The internal disturbances in that country which were strongly related to Sweden by national and political ties, were reflected in Sweden. It was finally decided, however, to maintain strict neutrality between the Soviet Government and Finland. Following the close of the war Sweden was greatly affected by the German revolution. Encouraged by its results the Independent Socialist Party made attempts for the abolishment of the monarchial form of government and the establishment of a republic. This agitation quickly subsided, however, on the promise of reforms by the government. These included a new election law and the granting of the franchise to men and women on equal terms. In February, 1918, a controversy arose between Sweden and Finland for the possession of the Aland Islands. These had been occupied by Germany after the collapse of Russia, and therefore their disposition remained in the hands of the Peace Conference. Their population, which was purely Swedish, had appealed after the separation of Finland from Russia to the King of Sweden for annexation. The disposition of these islands had not been settled in 1921. In May, 1919, full national suffrage was granted to women, who since 1909 had enjoyed municipal suffrage. In March, 1920, a cabinet composed entirely of Socialists was selected by Hjalmar Branting, prime minister. This was probably the first instance in political history when a Socialist cabinet was in power. The cabinet was accepted by the king.