Tapestry
2 of the 7 encyclopedias on this shelf carry an entry for Tapestry. Both are reproduced below, so you can see where they agree and where they differ.
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
a hand-wrought textile of ancient origin produced by working into a system of warp threads numberless short threads which form both the filling and design. Tapestry is not woven in the ordinary sense of the word, since no shuttle is used, and no weft threads of regular length. It is not embroidery, for that is produced by the needle, and on textiles previously woven. The famous Bayeux tapestry, so called since the designs are similar and the historical value equal to that of real tapestries, is technically a piece of embroidery done in needlework on linen canvas. Certain makes of carpets are called tapestry; and many cotton, wool, and silk textiles, imitating in design the real tapestries, are called by that name. Genuine tapestries differ essentially from these spurious productions. The tapestry weaver uses an implement called a broche, a French word for which there is no English equivalent. The broche is neither shuttle, needle, nor spool, but it takes the place of all three. A separate broche is used for each color and shade. The materials are short threads of wool, silk, gold, or silver. As each bit of colored thread is put into place and fastened it is pressed down over and around the warp threads with a sort of comb. These colored threads furnish the weft and are so placed as entirely to encase and conceal the warps which, in the finished fabric, are invisible on both sides. The warp threads, which are stretched in a frame or loom, number from twenty-two to twenty-six to the inch. Alternate warp threads are attached to strings, so arranged as to be readily lifted in groups or relays. There are two methods of work, "haute lisse," or high warp, and "basse lisse," or low warp. In high warp, the frame holding the warp threads is placed in an upright position. In low warp it is in a horizontal position. In both methods the pattern or design is traced with chalk, a small portion at a time, on the warp threads. The model or cartoon, as it is called, is in color and of the full size intended to be produced in the fabric. The model is placed behind the worker in "high warp" tapestry. In "low warp," it is beneath the warp threads and indistinctly discernible between them. In both positions of the warp thread, the weaver works from the back of the fabric. In haute lisse he can compare his work with the model by going around to the front of the frame. In basse lisse the frame must be lifted. Basse lisse tapestry can be produced more rapidly than haute lisse, since the device by which the groups of warp threads are lifted for the passage of the broche is worked by a treadle and consequently the basse lisse worker has both hands free. In haute lisse the threads are lifted by the hand. The novice is unable to distinguish between the finished fabrics produced by haute lisse and basse lisse methods. Haute lisse is considered somewhat superior. Basse lisse tapestry is sometimes identified in a rather curious way. If the wrong side is examined carefully, bits of hair from a man's beard are usually found caught among the threads, this from the position of the worker. Many medieval tapestries are marked with monograms, names, or other inscriptions. As these did not appear on the cartoon, the worker often made the mistake of weaving them in as though he were working the right side, which causes them to appear from the face of the tapestry as though written backward. Many tapestries are in existence from various periods of the world's history. There are fragments antedating the Christian era up to the productions of recent years. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are the periods when this art was probably at its height, the tapestry worker at that time ranking with the painter and sculptor. Each separate piece of this medieval tapestry is an original production. The model was interpreted, but not copied, by the tapestry worker. The designs are varied and elaborate. They depict scenes in which human figures bear a prominent part. Bible stories, mythological scenes, the legends of saints, above all, scenes from actual history, expeditions, battles, coronations, weddings, victories of kings and princes, are cunningly wrought out in these wonderful hangings. Other varieties called verdures represent trees and groves. These are especially beautiful as wall decorations. Without an examination of these "decorative paintings in tissue," it is impossible to comprehend the difficulties of the work, the skill, patience, artistic perception, and training required in their production. In the best period of the art the tapestry worker obtained his outline from the model. His suggestions of color and other ideas, he doubtless received from the same source; but he put his own individuality into his work as much as does any artist. By long study and experience he had acquired an appreciation of the difference between a flat, stretched surface, and one softly draped and often lifted, moved about, or blown by currents of air; an understanding also of the difference between pigments laid on with a brush and effects in color and shading produced by tiny threads lying close against each other. In the finest examples of tapestry, as many as 14,450 shades and tints are used. In executing figures, the high lights are usually in wool, dark effects in silk. A tapestry worker can produce only about one square yard of high art tapestry in a year. An apprentice must spend from twelve to fifteen years in training, and even then, unless he has the eye and hand of an artist, he will become but an indifferent worker. The oldest of all existing tapestries were discovered in the Crimea by Stephani, the archaelogist. They are believed to have been woven in Asia 400 years before the Christian era. Among ancient nations Egypt was noted especially for its tapestries. Egyptian tapestries from the second century A. D. have been found in tombs. These early tapestries were woven in the form of bands, used as decorations for the robes of royalty. They were used also to some extent for household decoration. From Egypt to Asia, from Asia to Greece and Rome, thence to France and other parts of Europe, the art of tapestry weaving advanced. During the Middle Ages tapestry came into use as wall hangings. The oldest of these mural tapestries in existence are fragments from the Church of Saint Gereon in Cologne. These date from the eleventh and twelfth centuries we find records of nuns and monks, queens and court ladies, devoting time to this work. Palaces and temples, altars and the walls of churches, were adorned with it. The city of Arras, France, became so famous for its tapestry that the names Arras, Arras work, or cloth of Arras have ever since been used properly to designate tapestries. Designs for these medieval tapestries were made by many celebrated artist, even Raphael and Titian furnishing paintings to serve as patterns. In modern times learned men have devoted much time to the study of tapestries, and many histories of this art have been written. These histories include accounts of different tapestry weaving centers; histories of artists especially skilled in the work; descriptions of famous tapestries; interpretations of signatures; marks, monograms, and symbols interwoven in the fabrics; explanations of scenes represented in the pictorial tapestries; and descriptions of the technicalities of the weaving processes. Many interesting facts have come to light as a result of these researches, apart from those bearing directly upon the production of tapestries and many new fields of interest have been opened up and new questions propounded in connection with them. For several hundred years France has been the tapestry-making country of the world. The Gobelins manufactory at Paris produces the most noted pieces. The methods vary somewhat from those of medieval times, but the essential features are the same. The Gobelins and the Beauvais manufactories are national institutions. The purpose of the government in their establishment and maintenance was to set examples of artistic designing, good coloring, and careful workmanship, as well as to furnish products for the use of the government and for presentation on special occasions to other nations. Several private tapestry manufactories are maintained in Europe. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, a factory for the production of tapestries was established in the United States . It is located on the Bronx River near Williamsburg, New York . French weavers and American apprentices were employed. The tapestry produced here is known as Baumgartner tapestry, from the name of the proprietor. Artists are employed to paint designs. All silk Baumgartner tapestry is valued at $300 per square yard; that from wool and silk at from $40 to $100 per yard. In 1897 a single piece measuring seventy square yards was sold for $18,000. Throughout the history of art from the earliest records, tapestries have ranked as the most magnificent of mural decorations, and the most important factor in crowning with pomp and splendor grand tournaments, funerals of exalted personages, receptions to famous generals or renowned prelates, triumphal entries of sovereigns or distinguished conquerors, royal and princely marriages, and coronations of popes, emperors, and kings. Everywhere they occupied the places of honor and were relied upon to create the profoundest effect and arouse the highest enthusiasm. Great generals carried them to the wars, and princes and monarchs did not hesitate to borrow from each other whenever they desired to give an entertainment of unusual magnificence. In patrician homes their rich warm colors brought out in exquisite relief the classical purity of the architecture and the beauty of the statuary, bronzes, and gilded furniture. In churches, as Muntz poetically declares, they sifted the sunlight and thereby added to the mysterious shadows of these sanctuaries.--Americana.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
an ornamental textile used for the covering of walls and furniture, and for curtains and hangings. In its method of manufacture it is intimately related to Oriental carpets, which are made in precisely the same way as certain kinds of tapestry, the only distinction being that carpets are meant for floor-covering alone. Fine storied tapestries are, however, much more elaborate and costly than any carpets, and they have altogether different artistic pretensions. Tapestries are divided into two classes, according as they are made in high warp or low warp looms. The former in manufacture have their warp threads stretched in a vertical manner with a roller at the top around which the warps are wound, and another at the bottom for receiving the finished tapestry. On the low warp looms the warp is extended horizontally, there being an arrangement in both for shedding or separating the warp into two leaves, sa front and back, as in ordinary weaving. It is in high warp looms that the most elaborate storied or pictorial tapestries are made, low warp looms being more largely devoted to the production of still life and non-pictorial decorative compositions. Notwithstanding these differences, it is difficult to distinguish between tapestries which have been made on high and low warp looms respectively, though the latter are more rapidly and consequently less expensively woven. The art of tapestry-working is of high antiquity, and it may be that the curtains the of tabernacle "of blue and purple and scarlet, with cherubim of cunning work" (Exod. xxvi: 1), were a kind of tapestry, though more probably they were of needle work. The so-called Bayeaux Tapestry is really embroidered work of the period of William the Conqueror. The art of tapestry working, and indeed all fine weaving, came to Europe from the East, and so well was this recognized that during the Middle Ages the fabric was generally known as Sarrazinois. So far as is known the art of high warp tapestry weaving was first practiced in Flanders toward the end of the 12th century, and it flourished in the rich and prosperous towns of Arras, Valenciennes, Lille, Brussels, etc., and from the predominant importance of the first of these towns storied tapestries came to be generally known as "Arras." The disasters which overwhelmed the land during the contest with the Spanish power led many of the most skillful of the tapestry weavers to seek an asylum in foreign lands, and thus the art spread to various European centers. Repeated attempts had been made in France from the middle of the 16th century onward to establish the industry, but it was not till two Flemish workers, Comans and De la Planche, were engaged for an establishment formerly occupied by a family of wool dyers called Gobelin, that the industry was successfully ally founded and the famous Gobelins factory begun. The manufactures of the Savonnerie, an establishment founded by Henri IV. for velvet-pile carpets and hangings, was in 1826 combined with the Gobelins, and the two industries are now carried on together by the state. There is also a state factory for low warp tapestries at Beauvais; and at Aubusson and Felletin commercial tapestries are very largely made for furniture covering, etc., in establishments which in earlier times were celebrated for their tapestries de luxe. Tapestries were also made at an early period period in in England. In 1619 an establishment was founded at Mortlake by Sir Francis Crane, and under his guidance works of the very highest merit were produced. Tapestries especially the high warp storied varieties are the textiles of kings. In earlier times the monarchs of Europe resorted to the Netherlands for pieces for the decoration of their palaces; and when the manufacture came to be more disseminated it was almost entirely under state supervision and control that the work was carried on. It was for tapestry that Raphael produced the immortal series of cartoons illustrating the acts of Christ and the Apostles which were executed in Brussels for the Sistine Chapel. Seven of these cartoons, purchased by Charles I. under the advice of Rubens, are now in South Kensington Museum. intestinal worm,