Themistocles
3 of the 7 encyclopedias on this shelf carry an entry for Themistocles. Both are reproduced below, so you can see where they agree and where they differ.
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)
an Athenian general and statesman; born about 520 b. c. His father, Neocles, belonged to an undistinguished family of the middle class; his mother was a Carian. Ambitious, he used his archonship of 493 for the promotion of his political plans. He saw what was best for Athens when he convinced his countrymen that a powerful fleet was absolutely necessary for their welfare. During the war with Persia which followed, Themistocles, commander of the Athenian squadron, which numbered 200 of the 324 vessels engaged, to avoid dissension was content to serve under the Spartan Eurybiadas, a man of narrow mind and hopeless obstinacy. On THEMISTOCLES the eve of Salamis it required all the influence of Themistocles' vehement personality and threats to induce his timid superior and colleagues to await the attack of the enemy. In his eagerness to precipitate a collision, he sent by night a messenger to urge the Persian generals to make an immediate attack, as the Greeks had resolved on retreat. Intimation of the Persian advance was brought at nightfall by his rival Aristides, who had been ostracized in 483 b. c. The Peloponnesians refused to continue the pursuit of the Persians beyond Andros. From that place Themistocles sent a second message to Xerxes urging him to hasten back before the Greeks carried out their project of breaking down the bridges. The victor of Salamis was now the foremost name in the minds and mouths of men. The rebuilding of the walls of Athens by his advice on a scale far larger than anything in existence aroused great uneasiness among the allies of Sparta, but, by a series of adroit stratagems, Themistocles succeeded in cajoling the ephors till the walls had reached a height sufficient for defense. But his popularity was now waning, and the Spartan faction in Athens was plotting his ruin. Plutarch tells us that he provoked the anger and resentment of the citizens by his insufferable arrogance. In 471 B. C. ostracism was demanded, and he was banished from Athens. Argos was his first retreat, but so long as he remained there Sparta could have no security or peace. His condemnation on the false charge of implication in the treason of Pausanias drove him from Argos. He fled to Corcyra, and after a series of hairbreadth escapes was compelled to seek shelter in Asia. Artaxerxes received his suppliant with the greatest favor, and listened with attention to his schemes for the subjugation of Greece. He resided at Magnesia Magnesia till about 453 b. c. It is said that the young king was so affected with joy that he was heard at night to cry thrice in his dreams, "Themistocles, the Athenian, is mine." After the Persian fashion, the town of Lampsacus was appointed to supply him with wine, Magnesia with bread, and Myus with other provisions. At Magnesia he lived securely till about 453 B. C. "In a word," says Thucydides, "Themistocles, by natural force of mind, and with the least preparation, was of all men the best able to extemporize the right thing to be done." Of his moral character the great historian says nothing. But if his patriotism seems at times to have been but a larger kind of selfishness, it must be remembered that Themistocles was possessed of the conviction that no one could realize the dream of a great Athenian empire but himself. The sentence passed on him was a bitter return for the unparalleled services he had rendered his country, and, due as it was to Spartan influence and jealousy, proved all the harder for a man of spirit to bear.
Aiton's Encyclopedia (1910)
the-mis'to-kleez, a noted Athenian leader. He died about 460 B. C. He rose to prominence immediately after the battle of Marathon. He strove to equal the fame of Miltiades, whose victory robbed him of sleep. He was one who, though he "knew nothing of music and song, did know how of a small city to make a great one." He foresaw that the Persians would renew the attack and urged his fellow citizens to devote the revenue derived from recently opened gold mines and from tributary cities to the building of the most powerful fleet in the world. From the oracle of Delphi he procured a response that the safety of the city lay in wooden walls. Alcibiades the Just, who opposed him violently, he caused to be octracized or exiled for a term of years. The return of the Persians and the naval battles of Salamis, in which the fleet of Xerxes was routed, proved the wisdom of his plans. After the retirement of the Persians Themistocles was by far the most influential man in Athens. He pursued a vigorous policy. He rebuilt the walls of Athens, fortified the Piraeus, and made it the busiest port in the world. The rest of his life is less pleasing. He was suspected of collecting tribute and of neglecting to turn it into the city treasury. He was accused of taking bribes and of aiming to make himself tyrant of the city. He was ostracized and fled first to Argos, then to Corcyra, and finally to the court of Xerxes at Susa. He was received cordially and made governor of a province in Asia Minor . Here he lived in luxury. Three cities were assigned the duty of providing him bread, wine, and meat respectively. The manner of his death is unknown. His bones, so runs the tradition, were carried secretly to Attica and buried in his native soil. A spot at the neck of the harbor of Piraeus is known as the Tomb of Themistocles. See Salamis ; Aristides ; Oracle ; Miltiades ; Athens
1000 Classical Characters (1900)
A celebrated general born at Athens . When Xerxes invaded Greece, Themistocles was intrusted with the care of the fleet, and at the famous battle of Salamis , fought в. c. 480, the Greeks, instigated to fight by Themistocles, obtained a complete victory over the formidable navy of Xerxes. He died in the sixty-fifth year of his age, having, as some writers affirm, poisoned himself by drinking bull's blood. 2026 Editor's Note: The ancient story that Themistocles killed himself by drinking bull's blood is now considered a myth; he likely died of natural causes in 459 BC. The bull's-blood tale appears in some ancient sources but was doubted even by Plutarch, and modern historians attribute his death to illness or old age. (Ed: BR 2026-07-20)