United States of America

Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)

2026 Editor's Note: This page uses language about race that was commonplace when the book was published and is offensive by today's standards. The text has been left exactly as it was printed, rather than cut or softened, so that the historical record — including how ordinary such language once was — is preserved. (Ed: ET 2026-07-22) a Federal republic, composed of 48 States, the District of Columbia, the District of Alaska, the territories of Hawaii and Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands, Canal Zone, Guam, Tutuila, the Panama and the Virgin Islands; chiefly occupying portions of North America the temperate from lat. 24° 20′ to 49° N., and lon. 66° 48' to 124° 32′ W. Boundary. The United States is bounded on the N. by British North America, the boundary line running through the Strait of Juan de Fuca to the S. of Vancouver's Island, but to the N. of the island of San Juan, striking the ning along route through the Great Lakes and along the St. the Laurentian water-shed to John's and St. Croix rivers and Fundy Bay. The land boundary is a clearing 30 feet wide, with iron mile posts 4 feet high painted white. The E. and W boundaries are formed by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans respectively, the S. boundary by the Gulf of Mexico, the Rio Grande del Norte up to the 32d parallel, and a broken line drawn between the 31st and 33d parallels to the Pacific separating the United States from Mexico. These boundaries do not include Alaska. The ocean shore lines are as follows: North Atlantic coast, including bays, islands, etc., 6,150 miles; South Atlantic coast, 6,209; Mexican 'Mexican Gulf coast, 5,744; Pacific coast, 3,251-total, 21,354. The land, lake, and river boundary toward Canada is 3,700 miles, and the similar one toward Mexico, 2,105 miles; making the total ocean, land, lake, and river boundary, 11,075 miles. Excluding Alaska the greatest Continental extent E. and W. is 3,100 miles and N. and S., 1,780 miles. Area. The tables shown on pages 81 and 82 give the area of the continental territory by States and Territories. Topography. The two great mountain systems of the United States are the Apsystems palachians and the Rocky Mountains. The former extend from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the mouth of the Mississippi-a distance of 1,300 miles and at the S. bend inland, leaving the wide and rich seaboard of Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida. This maritime region includes all the older States, and its inhabitants still amount to one-third of the whole. As far S. as the Hudson river it is hilly; thence, as far as the Alleghenies extend, its surface is divided between a plain and a mountain slope, the base of which appears to have Date of Act of Organization State or Territory or Admission Original States: New Hampshire. Massachusetts Rhode Island.. Connecticut. New York... New Jersey. Pennsylvania. Delaware. Maryland. Virginia. North Carolina. South Carolina. Georgia.. States Without Previous Territorial Organization Admitted: Mar. 4 June 1 Vermont. June 1 Kentucky Mar. 15 Tennessee Dec. 29 Maine. June 19 Texas. West Virginia States With Previous Territorial Organization Admitted: May 7 Territory. Feb, 19 State. Mar. Ohio. Territory Apr. 30 State. Louisiana. May Territory Dec. 11 State... Apr. Indiana. Territory Dec. 10 State.. Feb. Mississippi. Territory. Dec. State... Mar. Illinois. Territory Dec. State. June Alabama. Territory. Aug. State. Mar. Missouri. Territory June State. Jan. Arkansas. Territory. Jan. State. Mar. Michigan... Territory Mar. State.. June Florida. Territory Dec. State.. Apr. Iowa. Territory. May State Mar. Wisconsin. Territory. Sept. State. Mar. California. Territory May State. Aug. Minnesota Territory Feb. State May Oregon. Territory. Jan. State. Mar. Kansas. Territory Oct. State. May Nevada Territory Mar. State. Feb. Nebraska. Territory Aug. State Mar. Colorado. Territory Nov. State. North Dakota Mar. Territory Nov. State. May South Dakota Territory Nov. State. Mar. Montana. Territory Nov. State.. Mar. Washington. Territory. July State. July Idaho. Territory July State. Sept. Wyoming. Territory Jan. State. May Utah. Territory. Nov. State Sept. Oklahoma. Territory. Jan. State.. Feb. New Mexico. Territory Feb. State. Authorities differ somewhat on some of these dates and areas: the above Arizona. Total Area (Sq. Miles) 9,341 8,266 1,248 4,965 49,204 8,224 45,126 2,370 12,327 42,627 52,426 30,989 59,265 9,564 , 1791 40,598 , 1792 42,022 , 1796 33,040 , 1820 265,896 , 1845 24,170 , 1863 , 1800 ....... 41,040 , 1803 3, 1805 ...... 48,506 , 1812 7, 1800 .... 36,354 , 1816 7, 1798 .. 46,865 , 1817 3, 1809 56,665 3, 1818 3, 1817 .... 51,998 14, 1819 4, 1812 69,420 10, 1821 2, 1819 53,335 15, 1836 11, 1805 ... 57,980 26, 1837 30, 1822 58,666 3, 1845 12, 1838 56,147 28, 1846 20, 1836 56,066 29, 1848 1. 1847 158,297 9, 1850 3, 1849 84,682 11, 1858 14, 1848 96,699 14, 1859 30, 1854 82,158 29, 1861 2, 1861 110,690 31, 1864 30, 1854 ... 77,520 1, 1867 28, 1861 103,948 1, 1876 2, 1861 70,837 2, 1889 2, 1861 77,615 2, 1889 26, 1864 146,997 8, 1889 2, 1853 69,127 11, 1889 3, 1863 83,888 3, 1890 25, 1868 .... 97,914 10, 1890 9, 1850 84,990 4, 1896 2, 1890 .. 70,057 16, 1907 9, 1850 122,634 6, 1912 4, 1863 113,956 14, 1912 are from Census reports. State or Territory Territories, etc.: District of Columbia. Alaska. Hawaii... Total exclusive of Alaska and Hawaii. Total including Alaska and Hawaii.. NONCONTIGUOUS TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES: DATES OF ACQUISITION AND ORGANIZATION, AND POPULATION AND AREA Territory Acquired... Alaska (District) Acquired... Apr. 11, 1899 Guam. Acquired... July 7, 1898 Hawaii.. Panama Canal Zone. Acquired... Feb. 26, 1904 Philippine Islands. .Acquired... Apr. 11, 1899 Porto Rico. Acquired... Apr. 11, 1899 Tutuila Group.. Acquired... Mar. 8, 1900 Virgin Islands. .Acquired... Mar. 31, 1917 been the shore of an ancient sea. The most fertile part of this slope is between Long Island and the Potomac. The coast to the Mississippi is sandy throughout; from Long Island to North Carolina it is marshy only close to the sea, but farther S. the seaward half of the plain is covered with swamps. The Appalachians form the watershed between the rivers draining into the Atlantic and the tributaries to the Mississippi, though some of the former may be said to rise on the inland side of the mountains, and to force a passage through them to the sea. The principal rivers falling into the Atlantic are the Penobscot, Kennebec, Merrimac, Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, Rappahannock, James, Roanoke, Pedee, Santee, Savannah, and Altamaha. The Chattahoochee and the Flint river joining form the Appalachicola; the Alabama and Tombigbee, the Mobile; these drain into the Gulf of Mexico E. of the Mississippi. The great central plains and prairies between the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountains are drained almost entirely by the Mississippi and its affluents, chief of which are the Ohio, Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red river. The only other river of great importance flowing into the Gulf of Mexico is the great boundary river, the Rio Grande del Norte. The streams flowing N. are trifling, the principal being the Red river of the North, which flows into Lake Winnipeg. Almost the whole of the Mississippi basin consists of open, rolling prairies, while, on the other hand, Date of Act of Total Organization Area or Admission (Sq. Miles) Territory.. July 16, 1790 ..... Mar. 3, 1791 60 District. 590,884 July 27, 1868 District. 6,449 June 14, 1900 Territory. 3,026,789 3,624,122 Population Date of Ac- Area quisition or (Sq. Miles) Year Number Organization } 590,884 June 20, 1867 June 27, 1868 65,062 1919 14,969 210 1919 } 6,449 226,938 1919 527 21,707 1918 9,101,427 115,026 1919 1919 1,262,158 3,435 7,550 77 1916 26,051 132 1917 almost all the country between the Appalachians and the Atlantic was originally more or less thickly wooded. Between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Alps, called Sierra Nevada, in California and Cascade Range farther N., lies a rainless region, mostly S. of lat. 45° N., with an average elevation of 5,000 feet above the ocean, great part of it communicating, not with the sea, but draining into salt lakes and marshes. Except where irrigated, this plateau is utterly unproductive. To the N. it is drained by the Columbia, with its tributary the Snake river, which forces its way through the Sierras to the Pacific; while in the S. portion the Colorado and its affluents, after flowing through frightful cañons 3,000 to 5,000 feet below the surface of the plateau for some 600 miles, forms a delta at the head of the Gulf of California. The Great Cañon of the Colorado is more than 300 miles long. Between the Sierras and the ocean stretches the comparatively narrow but rich and beautiful sea-coast known as the Pacific Slope, drained by the Columbia, the Klamath, the Sacramento, and the San Joaquin, along with numerous smaller streams. The "Great Divide," or watershed, is in Montana and Wyoming, whence flow the Missouri, Columbia, and Colorado. In this wild region Congress set apart in February, 1872, the Yellowstone National Park, a tract 62 by 54 miles in extent (3,312 sq. miles) in the N. W. of Wyoming. The region, while mostly unfit for agriculture and mining, contains more natural marvels than can be found elsewhere. There are hot springs with their basins incrusted with calcareous spar, steam jets, geysers, mud volcanoes, waterfalls, caves with stalactites and stalagmites, eroded columns, statues, castles, cathedrals, etc., and a large lake sw swarming with fish. The valley of the Upper Yellowstone abounds in these wonders. Further details of the topography of the country will be found in the articles on the several States and Territories. Climate. The vast area of the United great States necessarily exhibits a variety of climate. New York has the summer of Copenhagen and the winter of Rome, the minimum range of the mercury being 5° in winter, and the maximum 98° in summer. The States bordering on Canada exceed both of these extremes, but throughout the Middle States, lat. 37°-41°, the climate is agreeable and often delightful throughout most of the year. The main peculiarity of the North American seasons is the almost total absence of spring. Mason and Dixon's Line, with its W. extension along the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri, has a historical interest, but is also of climatic importance in the geography of the cis- Missouri States. N. of it, sleighs are in frequent use during winter; S. of it, they are seen rarely. To the N. the productions are those of the temperate zone, and the States were always free; to the S., the country becomes more and more tropical as one advances. From meridians 98° to 100° the climate is still variable from year to year, seasons of rain and plenty being followed by others in which drought is the forerunner of scarcity. But the planting of forest trees and the cultivation of the soil, at first by irrigation, has largely increased the amount of rainfall. Along the Pacific seaboard, especially in California, the climate resembles that of S. Europe. The isothermal lines, roughly stated, show a mean temperature of 72° for Florida, the Gulf Shores, and Arizona; of from 52° to 60° for S. of Pennsylvania, Virginia, the N. border of the Carolinas, as, Tennessee, Missouri, Kansas, S. of Utah and Nevada, and the greater part of California; from 44° to 52° for Massachusetts, New York, Michigan, northern Illinois, Nebraska, Oregon and Washington; and from 36° to 44° for Maine, parts of New Hampshire and Vermont, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the whole crest of the Rocky Mountains, and parts of Oregon and California along the Sierras. The annual rainfall ranges from 56 to 64 inches in the S. of Florida and along the N. W. Pacific coast; 44 to 56 inches over the New Enland coast and the greater part of the Southern States, while in New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, etc., it is 32-44 inches. In Texas, Indian Territory, eastern Kansas and Nebraska, Dakota and Minnesota, and western California, it is 20-32 inches, while in the tract between 98° and 118° it ranges from 18 to 4 inches. Malarial diseases prevail in the lowlands of most of the Southern States, as also in the new and marshy portions of the Western States below lat. 40° N. Consumption and chest diseases prevail in New England and in the Minnesota, Colorado, Middle States. California, Arkansas, Georgia, and Florida are favorite resorts for persons with weak lungs. On the whole, the climate of the United States may be called healthy, malarious and deadly spots being very few; while certain districts, especially of Florida, the central plains, and the Pacific coast, are among the most salubrious in the world. Geology and Mineralogy. - Geologically as well as geographically the United States is divided into two great sections by the Rocky Mountains, along whose whole extent, in a wide belt from N. to S., Cretaceous formations predominate, with occasional stretches of Carboniferous strata. Tertiary formations embrace almost the whole of the basin between the Rocky Mountains and the Coast Range, broken by igneous rocks in Washington and in Oregon, and by Metamorphic strata along the Sierras; in the E. section Tertiary formations stretch along the coast from the Rio Grande almost to the Hudson. Metamorphic, igneous, and Devonian rocks prevail in New England, and along the shores of the Great Lakes the Middle Devonian or Old Red Sandstone. Older Palæozoic groups occur in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Tennessee, and run side by side with Metamorphic strata along the Appalachians, while a large proportion of the interior is occupied by great Carboniferous deposits. Anthracite coal occurs in the basins of Pennsylvania, which embrace about 472 square miles, and extend to a depth of from 60 to 100 feet. The Eastern coal fields embrace an area of over 69,000 square miles; the interior, es; the Gulf, 2,100; the ; 132,000 square miles Northern, 88,590; the Rocky Mountain, 37,000, and the Pacific coast, 1,900. (See COAL). The ores of iron abound in the States, and include all known ores. The ore beds most largely worked are in Minnesota, Michigan, Alabama, Wisconsin, New York, Tennessee, Virginia, and New Jersey. Copper ore is found chiefly in Arizona, Michigan, Montana, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, California, Tennessee, Alaska, Illinois, Kansas and Oklahoma; lead ores (galena) in Missouri, Idaho, Utah, etc., quicksilver in California and Nevada. Gold and silver are widely distributed, 24 States and Territories reporting them; but California, Colorado, Nevada, Montana, names have been given. Arizona, South Dakota, and Utah produce the larger part; Nevada alone about one-half. Nevada, Utah, and Arizona yield more silver than gold. Flora and Fauna. -The indigenous plants of the United States are estimated at about 5,000 species, California alone producing at least least 2,500. The potato, the tobacco plant, and m maize, now so familiar in Europe, have all been introduced from the United States or Mexico. The United States is especially rich in valuable timber trees, of which no less than 120 species, growing in sufficient quantities to be of commercial importance, attain a height of 100 feet and upward. Of these 12 species reach an altitude of 200 feet, and 5 or 6 exceed 300 feet. Hickory, magnolia, liquidamber, sassafras, and sequoia trees (to which species belong the giant trees of California), found only in a fossil state in the Old World, abound in the United States, as well as palmetto, tulip tree, 1899, 1904, 1909 and 1914: cypress, cottonwood, live oak, and other Estab- Average Cost of Materials- Group Year lish- Wage Amount ments Earners Food and kindred products. 1899 41,247 301,868 $ 1,782,863,000 1904 45,857 354,046 2,306,121,000 1909 55,364 411,575 3,187,803,000 1914 59,317 496,234 3,828,512,000 1899 17,647 1,022,123 894,846,000 Textiles 1904 17,042 1,156,305 1,246,562,000 1909 21,723 1,438,446 1,745,516,000 1914 22,995 1,498,664 1,993,058,000 Iron and steel and their 1899 14,082 745,235 1,000,949,000 products... 1904 14,431 868,634 1,190,794,000 1909 17,292 1,026,553 1,799,942,000 1914 17,719 1,061,058 1,762,313,000 Lumber and its manufac- 1899 34,954 671,696 tures. 1904 32,501 734,136 1909 48,539 911,593 1914 42,036 833,529 Leather and its finished 1899 5,625 248,626 products 1904 5,318 264,459 1909 5,728 309,766 1914 6,758 307,060 1899 26,627 298,744 Paper and printing... 1904 30,803 351,640 1909 34,828 415,990 1914 37,196 452,900 55,120 Liquors and beverages..... 1899 5,740 1904 6,379 77,827 186,128,000 1909 7,347 88,152 1914 7,562 Chemicals and allied prod- 196,538 451,457,000 761,691,000 1899 8,928 ucts 227,326 633,919,000 1,075,519,000 1904 9,826 1909 12,060 267,261 931,045,000 1,526,599,000 299,569 1,289,348,000 2,001,634,000 1914 12,374 Stone, clay, and glass prod- 85,137,000 1899 11,524 231,716 ucts 123,067,000 1904 10,773 285,346 183,792,000 1909 16,168 342,827 1914 14,747 334,702 238,734,000 oaks, and a number of trees more or less closely resembling the common species of western Europe, to which the same Agriculture and Live Stock. For the aggregate acreage, production, and values of the principal agricultural crops, see AGRICULTURE, the several State and Territorial articles, and the individual crop articles. For the production and manufacture of COTTON see article thereon. Manufactures in respect to product constitute the leading industry of the United States, and their importance is increasing more rapidly than that of agriculture. The manufacturing section is situated mainly in the North Atlantic States, spreading with diminishing importance W., following closely the distribution of the urban population. About half of the manufactured product comes from the nine States included in the North Atlantic group, and about onethird from the North Central States. Manufactures. - The following table presents a summary of the manufacturing interests of the United States in Value Added Value by of Manufacture Products $ 2,199,204,000 $ 416,341,000 2,845,556,000 539,435,000 3,937,618,000 749,815,000 4,816,709,000 988,197,000 1,628,606,000 733,760,000 2,147,441,000 900,879,000 3,060,199,000 1,314,683,000 3,414,615,000 1,421,557,000 1,819,478,000 818,529,000 2,199,776,000 1,008,982,000 3,164,472,000 1,364,530,000 3,223,144,000 1,460,831,000 480,930,000 1,007,532,000 526,602,000 517,501,000 1,219,749,000 702,248,000 717,833,000 1,588,274,000 870,441,000 837,360,000 762,350,000 1,599,710,000 396,633,000 582,048,000 185,415,000 480,221,000 724,391,000 244,170,000 669,874,000 992,713,000 322,839,000 351,460,000 753,135,000 1,104,595,000 393,341,000 214,566,000 607,907,000 550,802,000 309,012,000 859,814,000 728,046,000 451,239,000 1,179,285,000 580,715,000 1,456,046,000 875,331,000 93,815,000 382,898,000 289,083,000 68,338 139,849,000 501,254,000 361,405,000 674,311,000 488,183,000 246,188,000 772,080,000 525,892,000 310,234,000 441,600,000 595,554,000 712,286,000 185,513,000 270,650,000 391,148,000 268,081,000 531,737,000 347,945,000 614,162,000 375,428,000, Keystone View Co. PRESIDENTIAL INAUGURAL, MARCH 4, 1921, ON THE EAST FRONT OF THE CAPITOL Enc. Vol. 10-p. 84 Keystone View Co. WARREN GAMALIEL HARDING TAKING THE OATH OF OFFICE IN THE INAUGURAL CEREMONIES, MARCH 4, 1921 Photo, Clinedinst Studio PRESIDENT HARDING AND HIS CABINET, AT THEIR FIRST CABINET MEETING, MARCH, 1921-HARDING, MELLON, DAUGHERTY, DANBY, WALLACE, DAVIS, COOLIDGE, HOOVER, FALL, HAYS, WEEKS, HUGHES Keystone View Company COUNTING THE ELECTORAL VOTE FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE PRESIDENT IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES Keystone View Company Harris & Ewing THE SENATE CHAMBER IN THE CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. ההה Photo by Ewing Galloway THE STATE, ARMY, AND NAVY BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C. Ewing Galloway THE WHITE HOUSE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Estab- Average Group Year lish- Wage ments Earners Metals and metal products, 1899 other 5,041 161,463 than iron and steel. 5,880 198,531 1909 8,783 249,607 1914 10,023 262,154 Tobacco manufactures 1899 14,959 132,526 1904 16,827 159,406 1909 15,822 166,810 1914 13,951 178,872 Vehicles for land transportation. 1899 7,338 133,663 1904 6,058 136,625 1909 6,562 202,719 1914 9,909 263,076 Railroad repair shops... 1899 1,400 180,620 1904 1,226 247,922 1909 1,686 304,592 1914 2,011 365,902 Miscellaneous industries.... 1899 12,402 332,825 1904 13,259 415,669 1909 16,589 489,480 1914 19,193 594,465 All industries. 1899 1904 216,180 207,514 4,712,763 5,468,383 1909 268,491 6,615,046 1914 275,791 7,036,337 Commerce. The subjoined table is a summary of the foreign trade of the United States in the year ending June 30, 1920 : Twelve Months Ending June 30, 1920 Groups Per Dollars Cent. MERCHANDISE Imports Free of duty: Crude materials for use in manufacturing... 1,912,403,056 56.16 Foodstuffs in crude condition, and food animals Duties 547,376,705 16.07 Foodstuffs partly or 65,895,555 1.94 wholly manufactured.. Average Manufactures for further use in manufacturing.. 518,921,062 15.24 Manufactures ready for 331,090,664 9.72 Remaining consumption Miscellaneous 29,762,752 .87 Total free of duty... 3,405,449,794 100.00 Dutiable: Domestic: Crude materials for use in manufacturing... 229,241,565 12.50 Foodstuffs in crude in condition, and food animals 75,063,040 4.09 Foodstuffs partly or wholly manufactured.. 825,440,909 45.04 Manufactures for further use in manufacturing.. 281,792,221 15.37 use Manufactures ready for consumption 414,035,025 22.59 Miscellaneous 7,599,114 .41 Total dutiable.... 1,833,171,874 100.00 Free and dutiable: Foreign Crude materials for use in manufacturing..... 2,141,644,621 40.89 Foodstuffs in crude condition, and food animals 622,439,745 11.88 Cost of Value Value Added Materialsof by Amount Products Manufacture $472,515,000 $690,974,000 $218,459,000 633,132,000 895,975,000 262,843,000 892,065,000 1,240,410,000 348,345,000 1,023,354,000 1,417,042,000 393,688,000 92,867,000 263,713,000 170,846,000 126,086,000- 331,111,000 205,025,000 177,186,000 416,695,000 239,509,000 207,134,000 490,165,000 283,031,000 153,254,000 277,485,000 124,231,000 177,641,000 320,624,000 142,983,000 306,537,000 561,763,000 255,226,000 586,670,000 1,034,497,000 447,827,000 113,809,000 227,485,000 113,676,000 156,568,000 323,212,000 166,644,000 214,581,000 437,563,000 222,982,000 261,439,000 552,618,000 291,179,000 342,210,000 687,256,000 345,046,000 459,735,000 958,333,000 498,598,000 679,250,000 1,360,413,000 681,163,000 835,139,000 1,749,418,000 914,279,000 6,575,851,000 8,500,208,000 11,406,927,000 4,831,076,000 12,142,791,000 14,793,903,000 6,293,695,000 14,368,089,000 20,672,052,000 8,529,261,000 24,246,435,000 9,878,346,000 Twelve Months Ending June 30, 1920 Groups Per Dollars Cent. Foodstuffs partly or wholly manufactured.. 891,336,464 17.02 Manufactures for further use in manufacturing.. 800,713,283 15.28 Manufactures ready for consumption 745,125,689 14.22 Miscellaneous 37,361,866 .71 Total imports of merchandise 5,238,621,668 100.00 Per cent. free.. 65.01 collected from customs 322,902,649 duty ad, based valorem on rate of .. imports for consumption..... 6.31 in warehouse at the end of the month.. Exports Crude materials for use manufacturing 1,968,118,442 24.75 Foodstuffs in crude condition, and food animals 626,577,003 7.88 Foodstuffs partly or wholly manufactured.. 1,514,616,127 19.05 Manufactures for further in manufacturing .. 991,920,623 12.48 Manufactures ready for consumption 2,835,999,005 35,67 Miscellaneous 13,197,980 .17 Total domestic.... 7,950,429,180 100.00 160,610,553 Total exports.. 8,111,039,733 Excess of exports... 2,872,418,065 Twelve Months Ending June 30, 1920 State or Groups Per Dollars Ohio..... Cent. Oklahoma. Oregon WATER-BORNE COMMERCE Pennsylvania. Imports: Rhode Island.. In American vessels. ... 1,836,026,959 39.01 South Carolina In foreign vessels.. 2,870,930,209) 60.99 South Dakota. Tennessee. Total (except in land Texas. vehicles) 4,706,957,168 100.00 Utah... Vermont. Exports: Virginia.. In American vessels... 3,235,879,022 45.14 Washington. In foreign vessels. 3,932,588,373 54.86 West Virginia. Wisconsin. Total (except in land Wyoming. vehicles) 7,168,467,395 100.00 Alaska.. District of Columbia GOLD AND SILVER Hawaii.. Gold: 150,540,200 Imports United States: Exports 466,592,606 Dec. 31, 1918.. Silver: Dec. 31, 1917 102,899,506 Imports Dec. 31, 1916. Exports 179,037,260 June 30, 1916. June 30, 1915. TONNAGE OF VESSELS Net Tons Entered: Canals. The American 26,242,330 50.06 26,178,328 49.94 United States, Foreign their total length Total entered. 52,420,658 100.00 Cleared: Name of Canal, American 28,997,549 51.72 Foreign 27,074,832 48.28 Cape Cod Ship Canal Erie, and Branches Total cleared.. 56,072,381 100.00 Delaware and Raritan Schuylkill Navigation Chesapeake and Ohio Railroads. The following table gives Illinois and Michigan the railway mileage of the United States Chicago Drainage nal, III... on Jan. 1, 1919: Illinois and Mississippi Galveston and Brazos Monongahela Canal Total Ohio Canal, Pa... State or Territory Mileage Muskingum, Ohio. Operated Illinois Canal, Ill.. Fox Canal, Wis.. Alabama. Cumberland Canal, 5,607.86 Arizona.. Black Warrior, Ala 2,390.56 Arkansas. 5,418.62 Coosa Canal, Ala... California. 8,499.01 Trinity River, Texas Colorado. 5,610.95 Brazos River, Texas Connecticut. 998.14 Delaware. 340.51 Florida. 5,299.53 Religion and Georgia. 7,699.94 State or officially Idaho. 2,913.13 the United States Illinois. 13,275.04 Indiana. ligious belief is 7,707.60 Iowa.. 10,129.23 State laws, but Kansas. 9,556.74 are permitted to Kentucky. 4,073.29 Louisiana. legislation, the 5,645.84 Maine.. 2,352.49 1,464.84 the country being Maryland. nomination must Massachusetts. 2,134.16 Michigan. any public aid. 8,969.29 Minnesota. 9,392.32 the most powerful Mississippi 4,450.58 membership as Missouri. 8,810.56 Montana. 5,094.12 entire Roman Nebraska. 6,254.61 compared with Nevada.... 2,191.04 1,250.35 bers of other New Hampshire. New Jersey. 2,513.63 rived from various New Mexico. 3,060.27 over the country New York.. 8,722.14 States it is made North Carolina 5,615.41 5,295.01 French - Canadian North Dakota.. Total Mileage Territory Operated 9,665.38 6,558.87 3,404.72 12,476.15 211.60 3,850.00 4,284.14 4,173.60 16,713.91 2,222.38 1,081.06 4,803.76 6,292.09 4,007.70 7,736.18 1,929.62 53.57 . 262,201.54 263,928.65 264,232.01 264,024.77 262,358.97 principal canals in the the year of opening, and , are as follows: and State Year Miles , Mass ... 1914 13 , N. Y ..... 1825 340.4 , N. J ... 1834 44 Co., Pa ... 1825 86.96 1850 184.5 , Md .. , III ...... 95 1848 and Ship Ca- 1900 38.6 , Ill ... 75 1907 , Tex .. 36 .... , Pa .. 1879 128 968.5 1885 1840 91 1889 223 1856 176 Tenn. and Ky. 1905 326 1895 362 ... 1890 165 1909 330 . 1915 425 . Education. There is no recognized religion in . Every form of retolerated by National and no sectarian distinctions be considered in public prevailing sentiment of that each sect or demaintain itself without The Roman Catholic is religious body. Its reported represents the Catholic population as the communicant memdenominations. It is desources spread widely . In the Northeastern up largely of Irish and stock, while further W. along the shores of the Great the Roman Catholics are chiefly Canadians by birth or extraction Methodist and Baptist denominations strongest in the Southern Presbyterian in the Middle and States and the upper Mississippi the Episcopalian in the States; and the Congregational in New England. The educational lishment is treated very fully titles that will readily suggest selves to the reader, covering Cor common schools, the secondary the advanced and professional tions. Banking and Insurance. The and results of banking legislation the earliest period to the latest Congress bearing thereon, are under BANK, BANKS IN THE STATES, each title showing the cial statistics available. Under of INSURANCE will be found the kinds in operation, with an mate view of present conditions Revenue and Expenditure. lowing table shows the rece receipts bursements of the Government fiscal year 1921: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF AND DISBURSEMENTS RECEIPTS Ordinary Customs.... Internal revenue: Income and profits tax ... Miscellaneous.. * Miscellaneous revenue Panama Canal tolls, etc....... ...... $ Total ordinary Debt. The following is the 1920: Total gross debt, Nov. 30, 1920.. Public - debt receipts, Dec. 1 to 31, 1920 Public - debt disbursements, Dec. 1 to 31 * Decrease in fractional currency Decrease for period... Total gross debt, Dec. 31, 1920.. NOTE. Total gross debt before obligations, and without any deduction investments, was as follows: Bonds: Consols of 1930... Loan of 1925. Panama's of 1916-1936 Panama's of 1918-1938. Panama's of 1961... Conversion Bonds Postal Savings Bonds. First Liberty Loan. Second Liberty Loan. Third Liberty Loan.. Fourth Liberty Loan Total bonds .. Lakes Excess of ordinary receipts over $459,504,944.43 ordinary disbursements French Excess of ordinary disburse- . The ments over ordinary receipts are Public Debt States; the Liberty bonds and Victory notes 35,075.00 Southern Certificates of indebtedness... 4,613,223,450.00 War-savings securities ev: 12,142,660.18 valley; 72,800.00 Postal Savings bonds Northeastern Deposits for retirement of Namostly tional bank notes and Federal Reserve bank notes (acts estabof July 14, 1890, and Dec. under 7,548,147.50 23, 1913) them- 4,633,022,132.68 the public Total....... , and 7,600,541,410.16 Grand total receipts institu- DISBURSEMENTS Ordinary progress Checks and warrants paid (less , from balances repaid, etc.) 1,950,396,545.30 Act of Interest on public debt paid.. 478,418,864.44 Checks paid Panama Canal: set forth (less balances repaid, etc.).. 6,028,931.70 UNITED Purchase of obligations of forlatest offi- 57,201,633.53 eign Governments Purchase of Federal farm loan the title bonds: mention of 15,850,000.00 Principal. approxi- 118,358.08 Accrued interest . 2,508,014,333.05 Total ordinary The foland dis- Public Debt for the Bonds, interest - bearing notes, 4,937,738,624.14 and certificates retired... National bank notes and Federal Reserve bank notes re- RECEIPTS tired (acts of July 14, 1890, 7,538,741.00 and Dec. 23, 1913).. 4,945,277,365.14 Total $150,097,265.73 Grand total disburse- ..$7,453,291,698.19 ments 1,628,203,930.54 *Includes $30,000,000 received from United 770,064,311.20 415,452,127.16 States Sugar Equalization Board ( Inc.), as divi- 3,701,642.85 dend on capital stock owned by United States, and $60,724,742.27 received from Federal Re- 2,967,519,277.48 serve banks as franchise tax. official statement of the public debt Dec. 31, $24,175,156,244.14 $1,412,328,847.46 . 1,600,418,856.99 , 1920. 188,090,009.53 4,842,066.45 outstanding. 192,932,075.98 $23,982,224,168.16 deduction of the balance held by the Treasurer free of current on account of obligations of foreign Governments or other $599,724,050.00 118,489,900.00 48,954,180.00 25,947,400.00 50,000,000.00 28,894,500.00 11,612,160.00 $883,622,190.00 1,952,368,450.00 3,323,137,800.00 3,646,868,400.00 6,363,733,163.00 15,286,107,813.00 $16,169,730,003.00 Notes: Victory Liberty Loan. Treasury Certificates: Tax. Loan Pittman Act.. Special Issues War Savings Securities (net cash receipts) Total interest-bearing debt Debt on which interest has ceased Noninterest-bearing debt Total gross debt. * On the basis of estimates by the Government standing on Dec. 31, 1920, is carried at $ fractional currency estimated to have been Defenses. See ARMY; MILITARY GANIZATION, UNITED STATES; NAVY. Pensions. The number of pensioners on the roll at the end of the fiscal 1920 was 592,190. The number of War pensioners was 243,520, or a crease of 27,871 during the year. were 290,100 Civil War widows on pension on rolls. Of the War of 1812, were on June 30, 1920, 71 surviving widows, and of the war with Mexico, survivors and 2,432 widows. The sioners of the Spanish - American numbered 30,432. The total disbursed for pensions throughout year was $213,295,314. Post Office. The revenue of the service for the fiscal year ending 30, 1919, amounted to $ 436,239,126. Act of Congress passed on November 1917, increasing the postage rates, pired by limitation on June 30, 1919. expenditure for the year was $ 362,497 POPULATION OF THE UNITED State 1920 105,710,620 United States. 2,348,174 Alabama. 334,162 Arizona. 1,752,204 Arkansas. 3,426,861 California. 939,629 Colorado.. 1,380,631 Connecticut. Delaware. District of Columbia. 968,470 Florida. 2,895,832 Georgia. 431,866 Idaho.. 6,485,280 Illinois 2,930,390 Indiana. 2,404,021 Iowa.. 1,769,257 Kansas. 2,416,630 Kentucky. 1,798,509 Louisiana. 768,014 Maine... 1,449,661 Maryland. 3,852,356 Massachusetts. 3,668,412 Michigan. 2,387,125 Minnesota. 1,790,618 Mississippi. * A minus sign $4,225,970,755.00 $1,651,694,500.00 648,961,500.00 259,375,000.00 32,854,450.00 2,592,885,450.00 760,953,780.53 23,749,539,988.53 7,441,490.26 225,242,689.37 $23,982,224,168.16 Actuary, the amount of fractional currency out- 2,000,000, a reduction of $ 4,842,066.45 on account of irrevocably lost or destroyed in circulation. 635. In 1919 and 1920 mail service by ORaeroplane was developed to a point of practical value. Service was maintained between New York and Chicago, and year other large cities. There were in 1919 Civil 565,509 depositors in the postal savings debanks, with deposits of $167,323,260. There Population. The population of the the United States from 1790 to 1890 was as there follows: 148 1790. 3,929,214 5,308,483 pen- 1800. 7,239,881 1810. War 9,638,453 1820. amount 1830. 12,866,020 17,069,453 the 1840. 23,191,876 1850. 31,443,321 1860. postal 1870. 38,558,371 50,155,783 June 1880. 62,947,714 1890. The The following table shows the popula- 7, tion by States, compiled from the census exreports for 1900, 1910, and 1920: The See also CENSUS. , - STATES, BY STATES: 1920, 1910, AND 1900 Increase* Increase* Population 1900-1910 1910-1920 Per Per 1900 Number Number 1910 cent. cent. 91,972,266 75,994,575 13,736,505 14.9 15,977,691 21.0 2,138,093 1,828,697 210,081 9.8 309,396 16.9 129,808 63.5 204,354 122,931 81,423 66.2 177,755 11.3 262,885 20.0 1,574,449 1,311,564 1,049,312 44.1 892,496 60.1 2,377,549 1,485,053 259,324 48.0 140,605 17.6 799,024 539,700 206,336 22.7 265,875 23.9 1,114,756 908,420 17,587 9.5 20,681 10.2 184,735 223,003 202,322 52,351 18.8 106,502 32.2 278,718 437,571 331,069 224,077 42.4 215,851 28.7 752,619, 528,542 392,790 17.7 2,609,121 2,216,331 286,711 11.0 163,822 101.3 106,272 32.6 325,594 161,772 817,041 16.9 846,689 15.0 5,638,591 4,821,550 184.414 7.3 229,514 8.5 2,700,876 2,516,462 -7,082 -0.3 179,250 8.1 2,224,771 2,231,853 220,454 15.0 1,690,949 1,470,495 78,308 4.6 142,731 6.6 126,725 5.5 2,289,905 2,147,174 274,763 19.9 1,656,388 1,381,625 8.6 142,121 47,905 6.9 25,643 3.5 742,371 694,466 154,315 11.9 107,302 9.0 1,295,346 1,188,044 561,070 20.0 485,940 14.4 3,366,416 2,805,346 389,191 16.1 858,239 30.5 2,810,173 2,420,982 324,314 18.5 311,417 15.0 2,075,708 1,751,394 245,844 15.8 -6,496 -0.4 1,797,114 1,551,270 ( -) denotes decrease Population State 1920 1910 Missouri. 3,404,055 3,293,335 3,106,665 Montana. 548,889 376,053 243,329 Nebraska. 1,296,372 1,192,214 1,066,300 Nevada... 77,407 81,875 42,335 New Hampshire. 443,083 430,572 411,588 New Jersey. 3,155,900 2,537,167 1,883,669 New Mexico.. 360,350 327,301 195,310 New York.... 10,385,227 9,113,614 7,268,894 North Carolina. 2,559,123 2,206,287 1,893,810 North Dakota.. 646,872 577,056 319,146 Ohio..... 5,759,394 4,767,121 4,157,545 Oklahoma. 2,028,283 1,657,155 790,391 Oregon.. 783,389 672,765 413,536 Pennsylvania. 8,720,017 7,665,111 6,302,115 Rhode Island. 604,397 542,610 428,556 South Carolina. 1,683,724 1,515,400 1,340,316 South Dakota. 636,547 583,888 401,570 Tennessee... 2,337,885 2,184,789 2,020,616 Texas.. 4,663,228 3,896,542 3,048,710 Utah... 449,396 373,351 276,749 Vermont. 352,428 355,956 343,641 Virginia. 2,309,187 2,061,612 1,854,184 Washington. 1,356,621 1,141,990 West Virginia. 1,463,701 1,221,119 Wisconsin. 2,632,067 2,333,860 2,069,042 Wyoming. 194,402 145,965 92,531 *A minus sign (-) denotes decrease. Government. The form of govern- States ment of the United States is based on the Constitution Constitution of Sept. 17, 1787, to which of 10 amendments were added Dec. 15, 1791; eligible an 11th amendment, Jan. 8, 1798; a 12th attained amendement, Sept. 25, 1804; a 13th years amendment, Dec. 18, 1865; a 14th amend- States. ment, July 28, 1868; a 15th amendment chief March 30, 1870; a 16th amendment, Feb. militia 13, 1913; a 17th amendment, May 31, has the 1913; an 18th amendment, Jan. 16, 1920, passed a 19th amendment, Aug. 26, 1920. By ing his the Constitution the government of the on its nation is intrusted to three separate House authorities, the Executive, the Legisla- The Vice tive, and the Judiciary. The executive of the power is vested in a President, who holds sion is his office during the term of four years, the 49th and is elected, together with a Viceof the President chosen for the same term, in inability the mode prescribed as follows: "Each President State shall appoint, in such manner as shall the Legislature thereof may direct, a of the number of electors, equal to the whole moved number of senators and representatives be no to which the State may be entitled in the tary of Congress; but no senator or representaremainder tive, or person holding an office of trust Secretary or profit under the United States, shall Postmaster be appointed an elector." The Constitu- Navy, tion enacts that "the Congress may deoffice termine the time of choosing the electors, created and the day on which they shall give The their votes, which day shall be the same office, throughout the United States"; and furtime in ther, that "no person except a naturalgiving born citizen, or a citizen of the United only to : 1920, 1910, AND 1900 - Continued. Increase* Increase* 1900-1910 1910-1920 Per Per Number 1900 Number Cent. Cent. 110,720 3.4 186,670 6.0 172,836 46.0 132,724 54.5 104,158 8.7 125,914 11.8 -4,468 -5.5 39,540 93.4 12,511 2.9 18,984 4.6 618,733 24.4 653,498 34.7 33,049 10.1 131,991 67.6 1,271,613 14.0 1,844,720 25.4 352,836 16.0 312,477 16.5 69,816 12.1 257,910 80.8 992,273 20.8 609,576 14.7 371,128 22.4 866,764 109.7 110,624 16.4 259,229 62.7 1,054,906 13.8 1,362,996 21.6 61,787 11.4 114,054 26.6 168,324 11.1 175,084 13.1 52,659 9.0 182,318 45.4 153,096 7.0 164,173 8.1 847,832 27.8 766,686 19.7 96,602 34.9 76,045 20.4 -3,528 -1.0 12,315 3.6 247,575 12.0 207,428 11.2 518,103 214,631 18.8 623,887 120.4 242,582 19.9 958,800 262,319 27.4 298,207 12.8 264,818 12.8 48,437 33.2 53,434 57.7 at the time of the adoption of this , shall be eligible to the office President; neither shall any person be to that office who shall not have the age of 35 years, and been 14 a resident within the United " The President is commander - inof the army and navy and of the in the service of the Union. He power of a veto on all laws by Congress; but, notwithstandveto, any bill may become a law being afterward passed by each of Congress by a two - thirds vote. - President is ex officio President Senate. The presidential succesfixed by chapter 4 of the acts of Congress, 1st session. In case removal, death, resignation, or of both the President and Vice- , then the Secretary of State act as President till the disability President or Vice - President is reor a President is elected. If there Secretary of State, then the Secrethe Treasury will act; and the of the order of succession is: of War, Attorney - General, - General, Secretary of the and Secretary of the Interior ( the of Secretary of Agriculture was after the passage of the act. acting President must, on taking convene Congress, if not at the session, in extraordinary session, 20 days ' notice. This act applies such Cabinet officers as shall have been sent the No. 1 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 29 VICE No. 6 8 9 11 12 14 15 17 appointed by the advice and con- -Continued of the Senate and are eligible under Qualified Name No. Constitution to the presidency. Fol- William A. Wheeler....... March 5, 1877 lowing is a list of the Presidents, Vice- Chester A. Arthur. 4, 1881 March 10, 1881 Thomas F. Bayard. Oct. Presidents, and Cabinet officers since the Oct. 13, 1881 David Davis... inauguration of the Government: March 3, 1883 George F. Edmunds. ..March 4, 1885 21 Thomas A. Hendricks. 7, 1885 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES .Dec. John Sherman. March 4, 1889 22 Levi P. Morton. Qualified Name March 4, 1893 23 Adlai Stevenson. George Washington ....... April 30, 1789 March 4, 1897 24 Garret A. Hobart. George Washington.... March 4, 1793 March 4, 1901 25 Theodore Roosevelt. March 4, 1797 Charles W. Fairbanks..... March 4, 1905 2 John Adams. 26 March 4, 1801 Thomas Jefferson. March 4, 1909 27 James S. Sherman. Thomas Jefferson. March 4, 1805 Thomas R. Marshall..... March 4, 1913 28 4 James Madison. March 4, 1809 Thomas R. Marshall... March 4, 1917 March 4, 1813 James Madison. ...... March 4, 1921 29 Calvin Coolidge. 5 James Monroe. March 4, 1817 March 5, 1821 James Monroe. SECRETARIES OF STATE John Quincy Adams. March 4, 1825 Ap- Resi- March 4, 1829 Andrew Jackson. pointed dence Name March 4, 1833 Andrew Jackson.. March 4, 1837 Thomas Jefferson. 1789 Va. Martin Van Buren. March 5, 1841 Edmund Randolph.. .1794 Va. William H. Harrison. .1795 6, 1841 Timothy Pickering. John Tyler... Mass. . April 1797 March 4, 1845 Timothy Pickering. Mass. James K. Polk. March 5, 1849 John Marshall... 1800 Zachary Taylor. Va. 1881 9, 1850 13 Millard Fillmore. Va. James Madison. July 1809 March 4, 1853 Robert Smith.. Md. Franklin Pierce. 1811 March 4, 1857 James Monroe... James Buchanan. Va. 1817 March 4, 1861 John Quincy Adams. Mass. Abraham Lincoln. 1825 Abraham Lincoln. March 4, 1865 Henry Clay.. Ky. 1829 April 15, 1865 Martin Van Buren. .N. Y. 17 Andrew Johnson. 4, 1869 March Edward Livingston. 1831 La. 18 Ulysses S. Grant. 1833 Ulysses S. Grant. March 4, 1873 Louis McLane. Del. 1834 March 5, 1877 John Forsyth.. Ga. Rutherford B. Hayes... 1837 March 4, 1881 John Forsyth. James A. Garfield. Ga. 1841 .Sept. 20, 1881 Daniel Webster. Mass. Chester A. Arthur. 1841 Grover Cleveland. March 4, 1885 Daniel Webster. Mass. March 4, 1889 Hugh S. Legaré. 1843 Benjamin Harrison. S. C. 1843 . March 4, 1893 Abel P. Upshur. Va. Grover Cleveland .. 1844 March 4, 1897 John C. Calhoun. .S. C. William McKinley. 1845 William McKinley . March 4, 1901 James Buchanan. Pa. 1849 Theodore Roosevelt. Del. . Sept. 14, 1901 John M. Clayton. March 4, 1905 Daniel Webster. 1850 Theodore Roosevelt. Mass. Mass. 1852 27 William H. Taft. March 4, 1909 Edward Everett. 1858 28 Woodrow Wilson. . March 4, 1913 William L. Marcy N. Y. 1857 . March 4, 1917 Lewis Cass. Woodrow Wilson. Mich. Warren G. Harding ....... March 1860 4, 1921 Jeremiah S. Black. Pa.. 1861 N. Y. William H. Seward. 1865 - PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES William H. Seward.. N. Y. 1869 Elihu B. Washburne. 111. Qualified Name 1869 N. Y. Hamilton Fish.. 1 John Adams... 1877 N. Y. June 3, 1789 William M. Evarts. John Adams. 1881 . Dec. 3, 1793 James G. Blaine... .Me. 2 Thomas Jefferson. March 4, 1797 1881 F. T. Frelinghuysen. N. J. March 4, 1801 Thomas F. Bayard... 3 Aaron Burr. 1885 Del. 4 George Clinton. 1889 . March 4, 1805 James G. Blaine... Me. George Clinton. 1892 . March 4, 1809 John W. Foster... Ind. William H. Crawford. . April 10, 1812 1893 Walter Q. Gresham. 111. 1895 5 Elbridge Gerry. 4, 1813 Mass. Richard Olney. . March John Gaillard. 1897 Ohio 25, 1814 John Sherman.. . Nov. Daniel D. Tompkins. 1897 March 4, 1817 . Ohio William R. Day. Daniel D. Tompkins. Ohio 1898 March 5, 1821 John Hay.. 7 John C. Calhoun.. ..1905 N. Y. . March 4, 1825 Elihu Root... John C. Calhoun. .N. Y. 1909 March 4, 1829 Robert Bacon.. Hugh L. White... 1909 28, 1832 Philander C. Knox. Pa. . Dec. Martin Van Buren. 1913 March 4, 1833 Neb. William J. Bryan. .1915 Richard M. Johnson. .N. Y. March 4, 1837 Robert Lansing.. March 5, 1841 Bainbridge Colby.... 10 John Tyler... 1921 .N. J. April 6, 1841 Charles E. Hughes........ Samuel L. Southard. .N. Y. .1921 Willie P. Mangum. May 31, 1842 SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY George M. Dallas. March 4, 1845 Millard Fillmore. March 5, 1849 Ap- Resi- 13 William R. King. July 11, 1850 pointed dence Name William R. King.. March 4, 1853 .N. Y. .....1789 . April 18, 1853 Alexander Hamilton. David R. Atchison. 1795 5, 1854 Oliver Walcott. Conn. Jesse D. Bright.... Dec. .1797 John C. Breckenridge ..... March 4, 1857 Conn. Oliver Walcott. 1801 March 4, 1861 Samuel Dexter. Mass. Hannibal Hamlin.. 1801 March 4, 1865 Samuel Dexter. Mass. 16 Andrew Johnson. 1801 April 15, 1865 Albert Gallatin. Pa. Lafayette S. Foster. 1809 . March 2, 1867 Albert Gallatin. Pa. Benjamin F. Wade. March 4, 1869 George W. Campbell. .1814 Tonn. Schuyler Colfax. March 4, 1873 Alexander J. Dallas .1814 Pa. 18 Henry Wilson. 22. 1875 William H. Crawford. .1816 .Ga. Thomas W. Ferry......Nov. SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY-Continued Resi- Ap- Name dence pointed William H. Crawford. Ga. Richard Rush. Pa. Samuel D. Ingham. Pa. Louis McLane... 1831 Del. William J. Duane. Pa. 1833 Roger B. Taney.. 1833 Md. Levi Woodbury 1834 N. H. Levi Woodbury. 1837 .N. H. Thomas Ewing.. Ohio 1841 Thomas Ewing. Ohio 1841 Walter Forward. 1841 Pa. John C. Spencer. 1843 N. Y. George M. Bibb. 1844 Ky. Robert J. Walker. Miss. 1845 William M. Meredith. 1849 Pa. Thomas Corwin. Ohio. 1850 James Guthrie.. 1853 Ky. Howell Cobb.. 1857 Ga. Philip F. Thomas. 1860 Md. John A. Dix.... 1861 N. Y. Salmon P. Chase. Ohio 1861 Williaim P. Fessenden. .1864 Me. Hugh McCulloch. Ind. 1865 Hugh McCulloch. 1865 Ind. George S. Boutwell. 1869 Mass. Wm. A. Richardson. Mass. 1873 Benjamin H. Bristow 1874 Ky. Lot M. Morrill. Me. 1876 John Sherman.. Ohio. 1877 William Windom Minn. 1881 Charles J. Folger.. N. Y. 1881 Walter Q. Gresham. Ind. 1884 Hugh McCulloch. Ind. .1884 Daniel Manning... .N. Y. 1885 Charles S. Fairchild. .N. Y. ... 1887 William Windom. Minn, 1889 Charles Foster.. Ohio 1891 John G. Carlisle. Ky. 1893 Lyman J. Gage.. 111. 1897 Leslie M. Shaw... Iowa 1902 George B. Cortelyou. N. Y. 1907 Franklin MacVeagh. 111. 1909 William G. McAdoo. .N. Y......1913 Carter Glass.... Va. 1918 David F. Houston. . Mo. 1920 Andrew W. Mellon. . Pa. .1921 SECRETARIES OF WAR Resi- Ap- Name dence pointed Henry Knox. Mass. ...1789 Timothy Pickering. Mass. ...1795 James McHenry. 1796 Md. James McHenry. Md. 1797 John Marshall. Va. 1800 Samuel Dexter. Mass. .1800 Roger Griswold. Conn... 1801 Henry Dearborn. Mass. 1801 William Eustis. Mass. 1809 John Armstrong N. Y. 1813 James Monroe.. Va. .1814 William H. Crowford. Ga. 1815 Isaac Shelby. Ky. ..1817 Geo. Graham (ad in.) Va. .1817 John C. Calhoun. .S. C. 1817 James Barbour.. Va. 1825 Peter B. Porter. 1828 N. Y. John H. Eaton. Tenn. 1829 Lewis Cass. Ohio 1831 Benjamin F. Butler. N. Y. 1837 Joel R. Poinzett. S. C. 1837 John Bell.. Tenn. 1841 John Bell.. Tenn. ..1841 John McLean. Ohio 1841 John C. Spencer. N. Y. 1841 James M. Porter. 1843 Pa. William Wilkins.. 1844 Pa. William L. Marcy.. N. Y. 1845 George W. Crawford. Ga. 1849 Edward Bates.. Mo. 1850 Charles M. Conrad. 1850 La. Jefferson Davis. Miss. 1853 John B. Floyd.. 1857 Va. Joseph Holt. Ky. .1861 SECRETARIES OF WAR-Continued Resi- Ap- Name dence pointed Simon Cameron .. Pa. ..1861 Edwin M. Stanton.. . Ohio Edwin M. Stanton. Ohio 1865 U. S. Grant (ad in.). 111. 1867 Lorenzo Thomas (ad in.) D. C. 1868 John M. Schofied.. N. Y. 1868 John A. Rawlins.... 111. 1869 William T. Sherman. Ohio 1869 William W. Belknap. Iowa 1869 Alphonso Taft ... Ohio 1876 James Donald Cameron. Pa. 1876 George W. McCrary. Iowa 1877 Alexander Ramsey.. Minn. 1879 Robert T. Lincoln. 111. 1881 Robert T. Lincoln.. 111. 1881 William C. Endicott. Mass. 1885 Redfield Proctor.. Vt. 1889 Stephen B. Elkins. W. Va. 1891 Daniel S. Lamont. N. Y. 1893 Russell A. Alger. Mich. 1897 Elihu Root.... .N. Y. 1899 William H. Taft. Ohio 1904 Luke E. Wright. Tenn. 1908 Jacob M. Dickinson. Tenn. 1909 Henry L. Stimson. 111. 1911 Lindley M. Garrison. .N. J... .1913 Newton D. Baker. Ohio .1916 John W. Weeks .. Mass. .1921 SECRETARIES OF THE INTERIOR Resi- Ap- Name dence pointed Thomas Ewing.... Ohio .....1849 James A. Pearce. Md. .1850 Thos. M. T. McKernon Pa. 1850 Alexander H. H. Stuart. Va. .1850 Robert McClelland. Mich. .1853 Jacob Thompson.. Miss. 1857 Caleb B. Smith. Ind. 1861 John P. Usher.. Ind. 1863 John P. Usher. Ind. 1865 James Harlan... Iowa 1865 Orville H. Browning. 111. 1866 Jacob D. Cox..... Ohio 1869 Columbus Delamo.. Ohio 1870 Zachariah Chandler. Mich. 1875 Carl Schurz... Mo. .1877 Samuel J. Kirkwood. Iowa ..1881 Henry M. Teller. Col. 1882 Lucius Q. Lamar. Miss. .1885 William F. Vilas. Wis. 1888 John W. Noble. Mo. 1889 Hoke Smith.... Ga. 1893 David R. Francis. Mo. 1896 Cornelius N. Bliss.. N. Y. 1897 Ethan A. Hitchcock. Mo. 1899 James R. Garfield. Ohio 1907 Richard A. Ballinger. Wash. 1908 Walter L. Fisher... 111. 1911 Franklin K. Lane. . Cal. 1913 John B. Payne. Va. .1920 Albert B. Fall. .N. M. ..1921 SECRETARIES OF THE NAVY Resi- Ap- Name dence pointed George Cabot * .. Mass. ..1798 Benjamin Stoddert. Md. .1798 Benjamin Stoddert. Md. 1801 Robert Smith. Md. 1801 Jacob Crowninshield. Mass. 1805 Paul Hamilton. S. C. 1809 William Jones.. Pa. 1813 B. W. Crowninshield. Mass. 1814 B. W. Crowninshield. Mass. .1817 Smith Thompson N. Y. .1818 Samuel L. Southard. N. J. 1823 Samuel L. Southard. N. J. 1825 John Branch .. .N. C. .1829 Levi Woodbury. N. H. .1831 Mahlon Dickerson ....... .N. J. .1834 *Appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, but did not act. SECRETARIES OF THE NAVY-Continued Ap- Resipointed Name dence ...1837 Mahlon Dickerson.. .N. J. ..1838 James K. Paulding. .N. Y. George E. Badger.. .N. C. George E. Badger. 1841 .N. C. .1841 Abel P. Upshur.. Va. 1843 David Hensha Mass. .1844 Thomas W. Gilmer Va. ..1844 John Y. Mason.. Va. George Bancroft.... ..1845 Mass. John Y. Mason... Va. 1846 William B. Preston. .1849 Va. 1850 William A. Graham.. N. C. ..1852 John P. Kennedy. Md. 1853 James C. Dobbin.. N. C. 1857 Isaac Toucey. Conn.. .1861 Gideon Welles. Conn. .1865 Gideon Welles. Conn.. 1869 Adolph E. Borie... Pa. George M. Robeson. 1869 N. J. .1877 Richard W. Thompson. Ind. .1881 Nathan Goff, Jr... W. V. William H. Hunt... .1881 La. William E. Chandler N. H. .1882 William C. Whitney. 1885 N.Y. Benjamin F. Tracy. .1885 N. Y. Hilary A. Herbert. 1893 Ala. John D. Long... Mass. 1897 William H. Moody. 1902 Mass. Paul Morton... 1904 I11. Charles J. Bonaparte. 1905 Md. Victor H. Metcalf. 1907 Cal. Truman H. Newberry. 1908 Mich. George von L. Meyer. Mass. 1909 Josephus Daniels. 1913 N. C. Edwin C. Denby. Mich. ..1921 SECRETARIES OF AGRICULTURE Ap- Residence pointed Name Norman J. Colman.. 1889 Mo. Jeremiah M. Rusk. 1889 Wis. ..1893 J. Sterling Morton. Neb. 1897 James Wilson... Iowa ..1913 David F. Houston. Mo. .1920 Edward T. Meredith. Iowa ..1921 Henry C. Wallace.. Iowa POSTMASTERS-GENERAL Ap- Resi- Name pointed dence Samuel Osgood. .1789 Mass. Timothy Pickering. 1791 Mass. Joseph Habersham. .1795 Ga. Joseph Habersham. .1797 Ga. Gideon Granger... 1801 Ga. Joseph Habersham. 1801 Conn... Gideon Granger... 1809 Conn. Return J. Meigs, Jr. 1814 . Ohio Return J. Meigs, Jr. 1817 Ohio John McLean.. 1823 . Ohio John McLean.. 1825 . Ohio 1829 William T. Barry .Ky. Amos Kendall. 1835 Ky. Amos Kendall.. 1837 Ky. John M. Niles. 1840 Conn. Francis Granger. 1841 .N. Y. Francis Granger. ..1841 .N. Y. Charles A. Wickliffe 1841 Ky. Cave Johnson.. 1845 Tenn. Jacob Collamer. 1849 Vt. Nathan K. Hall.. 1850 N. Y. Samuel D. Hubbard. 1852 Conn.. James Campbell.. 1853 Pa. Aaron V. Brown. 1857 Tenn. Joseph Holt... 1859 Ky. Horatio King. 1861 Me. Montgomery Blair. 1861 Md. William Dennison. .1864 Ohio William Dennison. 1865 Ohio Alexander W. Randall. 1866 Wis. John A. J. Creswell. 1869 Md. 1874 James W. Marshall. Va. Conn ...... 1874 Marshall Jewell. POSTMASTERS-GENERAL-Continued Resi- Apdence pointed Name Ind. James N. Tyner. David McK. Key Tenn. Horace Maynard. Tenn. 1881 N. Y. Thomas L. James. 1881 Timothy O. Howe... Wis. 1883 Walter Q. Gresham. Ind. 1884 Iowa Frank Hatton.. 1885 William F. Vilas. Wis. Mich. 1888 Don M. Dickinson. 1889 John Wanamaker Pa. 1893 Wilson S. Bissell. .N. Y. 1895 W. Va. William L. Wilson. .1897 James A. Gary..... Md. 1898 Charles Emory Smith. . Pa. 1901 Wis. Henry C. Payne... 1904 Robert J. Winne .. Pa. 1905 George B. Cortelyou... .N. Y. 1907 George von L. Meyer. Mass. 1909 Mass. Frank H. Hitchcock. 1913 . Tex. Albert S. Burleson.. .1921 Will H. Hays.... . Ind. The Postmaster-General was not considered a Cabinet officer until 1829. ATTORNEYS-GENERAL Ap- Resipointed dence Name ....1789 Edmund Randolph. Va. 1794 William Bradford. Pa. 1795 Charles Lee. Va. Charles Lee... 1797 Va. 1801 Theophilus Parsons. Mass. 1801 Mass. Levi Lincoln.. 1805 Robert Smith. Md. 1805 John Breckinridge. Ky. .1807 Cæsar A. Rodney. . Del. . Del. 1809 Cæsar A. Rodney. .1811 William Pinkney. Md. 1814 Richard Rush. Pa. .1817 Richard Rush. Pa. 1817 William Wirt. Va. 1825 William Wirt... Va. John McP. Berrien. Ga. .1829 Roger B. Taney. Md. .1831 .1833 Bennjamin F. Butler .N. Y. Bennjamin F. Butler .1837 N. Y. 1838 Felix Grundy... Tenn. Henry D. Gilpin.. .1840 Pa. John J. Crittenden. 1841 Ky. 1841 John J. Crittenden Ky. Hugh S. Legaré. 1841 .S. C. .1843 John Nelson .. Md. 1845 John Y. Mason. Va. 1846 Nathan Clifford. Me. 1848 Conn.. Isaac Toucey. 1849 Md. Reverdy Johnson. 1850 John J. Crittenden. Ky. 1853 Mass. Caleb Cushing .. 1857 Jeremiah S. Black. Pa. 1860 Edward M. Stanton. Ohio 1861 Mo. Edward Bates.. Titian J. Coffey ( ad in.) 1863 Pa. ..1864 Ky. James Speed. 1865 James Speed .. .Ky. 1866 Ohio Henry Stanbery .1868 N. Y. William M. Evarts. 1869 Mass. Ebenezer R. Hoar. 1870 Ga. Amos T. Ackerman. 1871 Ore George H. Williams 1875 N. Y. Edward Pierrepont. 1876 Ohio Alphonso Taft. 1877 Mass. Charles Devens. 1881 Wayne MacVeagh... Pa. .1881 Benjamin H. Brewster Pa. 1885 Ark. Augustus H. Garland. 1889 William H. H. Miller. Ind. 1893 Mass. Richard Olney.. 1895 Ohio Judson Harmon. 1897 Cal. Joseph McKenna. .1897 N. J. John W. Griggs. 1901 Pa. Philander C. Knox. 1904 Mass. William H. Moody 1907 Md. Charles J. Bonaparte. ATTORNEYS-GENERAL-Continued Residence Name George W. Wickersham Tenn. James C. McReynolds.. Thomas W. Gregory. Tex. 1919 . Penn. A. M. Palmer.. Ohio ......1921 H. M. Daugherty........... SECRETARIES OF COMMERCE AND LABOR Ap- Resipointed dence Name 1903 George B. Cortelyou. .N. Y. ...1904 . Cal. Victor H. Metcalf .N. Y......1907 Oscar S. Straus.. Charles Nagel .....1909 ..Mo. SECRETARIES OF COMMERCE Ap- Residence Name 1913 .N. Y. W. C. Redfield. ...1919 . Mo. J. W. Alexander. ....1921 ..Cal. Herbert Hoover. SECRETARIES OF LABOR Ap- Resipointed dence Name .1913 William B. Wilson. Pa. Pa. .1921 James J. Davis... The Congress. - The legislative power is vested in Congress, made up of Senate and House of Representatives. A Senator's term of office is six years, and there are two Senators from each State, chosen (since 1913) directly by the people of the State. Senators must be not less than 30 years of age; must have been citizens of the United States for nine years; and be residents in the State from which they are chosen. Besides its legislative capacity the Senate is invested with the power of confirming or rejecting all appointments to office made by the President, and its members constitute a High Court of Impeachment. The judgment in the latter case extends only to the removal from office and disqualification. Representatives have the sole power of impeachment. The House of Representatives is composed of members elected every second year, by the vote of all citizens over the age of 21 of the several States of the Union, who are qualified in accordance with the laws of their respective States. By the 15th Amendment to the Constitution, neither race nor color affects the right of citizens. The franchise is not absolutely universal; residence for at least one year in most States (in Michigan and Maine three months) is necessary; in some States the payment of taxes, in others registration. For Judiciary, see JUDICIARY; SU- PREME COURT. History. The territories now occupied by the United States of America, though they were probably visited on their N. E. coast by Norse navigators about the year 1000, continued in the sole possession of Cyc numerous tribes of Indians till the redis- Ap- covery of America by Columbus in 1492. pointed In 1498 an English expedition, under the N. Y......1909 command of Sebastian Cabot, explored the E. coast of America, from Labrador to Virginia, and perhaps to Florida. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon landed near St. Augustine, Fla. In 1520 some Spanish vessels from San Domingo were driven upon the coast of Carolina. In 1521, by the conquests of Cortez and his followers, Mexico, including Texas, New Mexico and California, became a province of Spain. In 1539-1542 Ferdinand de Soto led a Spanish expedition from the coast of Florida across Alabama, and discovered pointed the Mississippi river. In 1584-1585 Sir Walter Raleigh sent two expeditions to the coast of North Carolina and attempted to form settlements on Roanoke island. A Spanish settlement was made at St. Augustine, Fla., in 1565; Jamestown, Va., was settled in 1607; New York, then called New Netherlands, in 1613; Plymouth, Mass., in 1620. A large part of the country on the Great Lakes and on the Mississippi was explored by La Salle in 1682; and settlements were made by the French. The first effort at a union of colonies was in 1643, when the settlements in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut formed a confederacy for mutual defense against the French, Dutch, and Indians under the title of "The United Colonies of New England." In 1761 the enforcement of the Navigation Act against illegal traders, by general search warrants, caused a strong excitement against the English Government, especially in Boston. The British admiralty enforced the law; and many vessels were seized, and the colonial trade with the West Indies was annihilated. In 1765 the passing of an act of Parliament for collecting a colonial revenue by stamps caused general indignation, and led to riots. Patrick Henry, in the Virginia Assembly, denied the right of Parliament to tax America, and eloquently asserted the dogma, "No taxation without representation." The first impulse was to unite against a common danger; and the first Colonial Congress of 29 delegates, representing nine colonies, made a statement of grievances and a declaration of rights. In 1766 the Stamp Act was repealed, but the principle of colonial taxation was not abandoned. In 1773 the duties were repealed, excepting 3d. a pound on tea. It was now a question of principle, and from N. to S. it was determined that this tax should not be paid. Some cargoes were stored in damp warehouses and spoiled; some sent back, and in Boston a Vol. X 7 mob disguised as Indians threw it into the harbor. England then determined to enforce the Government of the crown and Parliament over the colonies, and a fleet with 10,000 troops was sent to America, which led to the battle of Lexington, and the beginning of the Revolutionary War, April 19, 1775. The news that the British troops had been compelled to beat a hasty retreat summoned 20,000 men to the vicinity of Boston. A Congress of the colonies assembled at Philadelphia, and appointed George Washington Commander-in-Chief of an army of 20,000 men. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought at Charlestown, June 17, 1775, between 1,500 1,500 Americans, who had hastily intrenched themselves, and 2,000 British soldiers. When the Americans had exhausted their ammunition they were ordered to retreat; but as they had only lost 115 killed, 305 wounded, and 32 prisoners, while the loss on the British side was at least 1,054, the encounter had all the moral effect of a victory. After a winter of great privations the British were compelled to evacuate Boston, carrying away in their fleet to Halifax 1,500 loyal families. An army of 55,000 men, including 17,000 German mercenaries (Hessians), was sent under the command of Sir William Howe to put down this "wicked rebellion." On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered a resolution in Congress, declaring that the united colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. This resolution was adopted by the votes of 9 out of 13 colonies, and brought about the celebrated "Declaration ration of Independence," which on July 4, 1776, received the assent of the delegates of the colonies. They adopted the general title of the "United States of America," with a population of about 2,500,000. From the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775, to the surrender of Yorktown, Oct. 19, 1781, in 24 engagements, including the surrender of two armies, the British losses in the field were not less than 25,000 men, while those of the Americans were about 8,000. After the peace, concluded Sept. 3, 1783, the independence of the United States was acknowledged by foreign powers, and in 1787 the present Constitution was ratified. George Washington and John Adams, standing at the head of the Federalist party, were elected President and Vice-President of the United States. The War of 1812 grew out of the fact that England declined to put a stop to the abuse of impressing American citizens into the British navy, the attention of Congress having been called to 6,000 instances in 1811. In 1814 the Federalists of New England held a convention at Hartford in opposition to the war and the administration of President Madison, and threatened a secession of the New England States, as having to defend themselves as it was. The war was terminated by the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814, though the English suffered a disastrous defeat at New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815, nearly a month after peace had been concluded between England and America. At the period of the Revolution slavery existed in all the States except Massachusetts, but it had gradually been abolished in the Northern and Middle States, except Delaware, and excluded from the new States between the Ohio and the Mississippi rivers by the terms on which the territory had been surrendered by Virginia to the Union. The two sections had already entered on a struggle to maintain the balance of power against each other. After an exciting contest in 1820 Missouri was admitted with a resolution (the "Missouri Compromise") that in future no slave State should exist N. of the parallel of lat. 36° 30′ N. In 1826 two of the founders of the republic, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, died on July 4, the anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. În 1732 an Indian war, called the Black Hawk War, broke out in Wisconsin; but the passing of a high protective tariff act by Congress caused a more serious trouble. The State of South Carolina declared the act unconstitutional. A collision seemed imminent, when the affair was settled by a compromise bill, introduced by Henry Clay, providing for a gradual reduction of duties till 1843, when they should not exceed 20 per cent., ad valorem. In 1835 the Seminole War broke out in Florida, and a tribe of Indians, insignificant in numbers, under the crafty leadership of Osceola, kept up hostilities for years at a cost to the United States of several thousand men, and some $50,000,000. In 1837 Martin Van Buren succeeded General Jackson in the presidency. His term was a stormy one, from the great financial crisis of 1837, which followed a period of currency expansion and wild speculation. All the banks suspended payment, and the great commercial cities threatened insurrection. In 1840 Gen. William H. Harrison was elected President, but died in 1841, a month after his inauguration. He was succeeded by John vler, during whose administration the E. boundary N. question, which nearly occasioned a war with England, was settled by Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, and Lord Ashburton. In 1845 Texas was formally annexed to the United States, and James K. Polk, of Tennessee, succeeded Mr. Tyler in the presidency . M. Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washington, protested against the annexation of Texas as an act of warlike aggression, which brought about the Mexican War in 1846. In 1847 the Mexicans were defeated by General Taylor at Buena Vista; Vera Cruz was taken by storm, and General Scott won the great battle of Cerro Gordo. In 1848 peace was signed, and by the treaty of Guadaloupe the United States obtained the cession of New Mexico and Upper California, the United States paying Mexico $15,000,000, and assuming the payment of the claims of American citizens against Mexico. In 1849 General Taylor, the "Rough and Ready" victor of Buena Vista, became President, with Millard Fillmore as Vice- President. In September of the same year California adopted a constitution which prohibited slavery. The election of Franklin Pierce in 1852 against General Scott was a triumph of the Democratic States' Rights and Southern party. A brutal assault on Charles Sumner, United States Sotor from Massachusetts, by Preston Brooks, in consequence of a violent speech on Southern men and institutions, increased the excitement of both sections. In 1856 the Republicans, composed of the Northern Free-soil and Abolition parties, nominated John C. Fremont for the presidency, but James Buchanan, the Democratic candidate, received the election, with John C. Breck 'nridge as Vice-President. In Oct., 1859, John Brown, known in Kansas as "Ossawatomie Brown," who planned and led an expedition for freeing the negroes in Virginia, was captured, and executed Dec. 2, by the authorities of Virginia. In 1860 the Southern delegates withdrew from the convention at Charleston, and two Democratic candidates were nominated, Stephen A. Douglas and John C. Breckinridge. The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln, and at the election of November, 1860, Mr. Lincoln received every Northern vote in the electoral college, except three of New Jersey, 180 votes. The South lost no time in acting on what her statesmen had declared would be the signal of their withdrawal from the Union. Four years of civil war ended in their being compelled to remain in it. In 1864 Mr. Lincoln was re-elected, and on March 4, 1865, commenced his second term, with Andrew Johnson as Vice- President. On April 14, 1865, while the North was rejoicing over the capture of Richmond and the surrender of the Confederate armies, the President was assassinated at a theater in Washington by John Wilkes Booth. The assassin was pursued and killed, and several of his accomplices were tried and executed. Andrew Johnson became President. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, fled after the surrender of Rich Richmond; he was captured in Georgia, and released without trial in 1867. An amendment to the Constitution, forever abolishing slavery in the States and Territories of the Union, was declared ratified by two-thirds of the States, Dec. 18, 1865. The vast change in the organization of the republic made by this new fundamental law was completed by the 14th and 15th Amendments, passed in 1868 and 1870, which gave to the former slaves all the rights and privileges of citizenship. The seceded States were readmitted to the Union on condition of their adhesion to the Constitution as thus amended. Owing to the reconstruction policy after the Civil War differences arose between President Johnson and the Republican leaders in both houses of Congress. This antagonism finally led to the resolution of the House of Representatives, passed Feb. 24, 1868, to impeach the President "of high crimes and misdemeanors." President Johnson, however, was acquitted, as the prosecution lacked one vote of the two-thirds vote necessary for conviction. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was elected President in 1868, and inaugurated March 4, 1869, with Schuyler Colfax as Vice-President. He was re-elected, in 1872, with Henry Wilson as Vice-President. The Geneva Court of Arbitration gave its decree in the "Alabama" controversy in favor of the United States in 1872, while the San Juan Boundary dispute with Great Britain was settled in favor of the United States by the Emperor of Germany in the same year. The outrages of a secret organization known as the Ku-Klux-Klan, in the Southern States, necessitated the passing of an act in 1871 giving cognizance of such offenses to the United States courts. The year 1876, memorable in the annals of the republic as the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, was celebrated by a great hibition at Philadelphia. The presiden- Centennial Extial election of the same year was so closely contested that Congress appointed a spe special tribunal, selected from the Senate, the House of Representatives, and the justices of the Supreme Court, to examine the election returns. The decision was in favor of Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate, who was declared to have been elected President, and inaugurated March 5, 1877. In 1879 specie payments were resumed throughout the United States, after a suspension of 17 years. In 1880 the Republican National Convention at Chicago nominated Gen. James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, for President and Vice-President. The Democratic National Convention was held in Cincinnati, O., and Gen. Winfield S. Hancock and William H. English, of Indiana, were selected as candidates. The result of the election was in favor of the Republicans. General Garfield was inaugurated, March 4, 1881. On July 2, 1881, he was shot by a disappointed office seeker, Charles J. Guiteau, and after more than two months of suffering died from the effects of the wound at Elberon, N. J., Sept. 19, 1881. His loss was lamented by the whole nation. He was succeeded by Vice-President Chester A. Arthur, who served the remainder of the term. In 1884 the Democratic party nominated Grover Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks for the presidency and vicepresidency, while the Republicans put up James G. Blaine and John A. Logan. The election resulted in the choice of Grover Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks, who were inaugurated March 4, 1885. The death of General Grant on July 23, 1885, was a notable event, and one that profoundly moved the whole nation. Mr. Hendricks died Nov. 25, 1885, and John Sherman, by virtue of his election as president pro tem. of the Senate, beadcame his successor. Mr. Cleveland's ministration was in the main uneventful, though the country was disturbed by widespread and obstinate conflicts between labor and capital. The silver coinage question, the reform of the civil service, the Mormon question, the labor problem, and the Pan-Electric controversy were the issues of the hour. The presidential campaign of 1888 had the tariff question for its main issue. Mr. Cleveland was renominated by the Democracy, with Allan G. Thurman for Vice-President, and Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, grandson of the ninth President of the United States, and Levi P. Morton, for Vice-President, were nominated by the Republicans. The latter were elected, the electoral vote standing 233 to 168. In 1889 four new States were added to the Union, namely, Montana, Wash- North Dakota, South Dakota, and tington, and the Territory of Oklahoma was carved out of the Indian Territory. ad- In 1890 Wyoming and Idaho were mitted to statehood. In 1892 Mr. Harrison was renominated by the Republicans for President, and Whitelaw Reid, of New York, for Vice- President. The Democrats nominated Mr. Cleveland for President, and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, for Vice-President. Cleveland and Stevenson were elected by an electoral vote of 277 for the ticket, against 145 for Harrison and Reid, and 22 for Weaver, the candidate of the People's party. The year 1893 was memorable for the monetary depression and hard times throughout the , United Inited States, and, to some extent all of over the world. Many thousands men were out of employment; many financial institutions and business enterprises failed. Almost every form of security depreciated. A great railway strike, accompanied by great destruction of property and some loss of life, occurred on roads centering in Chicago; and others of less magnitude elsewhere. An army of unemployed men made a demonstration by marching across the country, subsisting on popular charity as they went, to the city of Washington, where they hoped to influence legislation by Congress, and action by the executive, to relieve the unemployed. This condition of things was popularly attributed to the administration, and to the Democratic been subtariff bill that had not yet stituted for the McKinley bill, but was sure to be passed. As a consequence, in the State and Congressional elections of 1894 the Republicans obtained sweeping victories, and came into power in Conwas other- The administration gress. wise marked by its maintenance of friendly relations with Spain against the anti-Spanbelligerent urgency of a large ish party, friendly to Cuban independence; by the extension of the Civil Service; and by the Arbitration Treaty of 1897. The presidential campaign of 1896 was an unusually exciting one, with seven tickets in the field: Republican, William McKinley and Garret A. Hobart; Democratic, William J. Bryan and Arthur Sewall; People's, William J. Bryan and Thomas E. Watson; Prohibition; Joshua Levering and Hale Johnson; National Democratic, John M. Palmer and Simon B. Buckner; Social Labor, Charles H. Matchett and Matthew Maguire; and National (Free-Silver Prohibition), Charles E. Bentley and James H. Southgate. In the election the Republican candidates received 7,104,779 popular and 271 electoral votes, and the fused Democratic and popular and Peoples' candidates 6,502,925 176 electoral votes. This campaign was characterized by a remarkable revolt in that the Democratic party and a fusion of party with the Populist. See BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS; MCKINLEY, WIL- The great event of this administration was the war successfully waged by the United States against Spain in 1898; the freeing of Cuba from Spanish dominion; the acquisition by the United States, as a result of the war, of Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands, and Guam, and, by treaty, of Hawaii and the Samoan island of Tutuila; and the formation of a considerable party, known as Anti-Expansionists and Anti-Imperialists. The details of the war are given under CUBA; MANILA BAY; PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; PORTO RICO; SANTIAGO SPANISH-AMERI- CAN WAR; and the various names of persons and places that became prominent in the war. In the presidential campaign of 1900 there were eight tickets in the field: Republican, William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt; Democratic, William J. Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson; Prohibition, John G. Woolley and Henry B. Metcalf; Middle-of-the-Road or Anti-Fusion Peoples', Wharton Barker and Ignatius Donnelly; Social Democratic, Eugene V. Debs and Job Harriman; Social Labor, Joseph F. Malloney and Valentine Remmel; United Christian, J. F. R. Leonard and John. G. Woolley; and Union Reform, Seth H. Ellis and Samuel T. Nicholas. The election gave the Republican candidates 7,208,224 popular and 292 electoral votes, and the Democratic candidates, 6,358,789 popular and 155 electoral votes. On Sept. 6, 1901, while attending the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, N. Y., President Mc- Kinley was shot twice by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, and died from his injuries on the 14th. Immediately thereafter Vice-President Roosevelt took the oath of office as President. In February- March, 1902, Prince Henry of Prussia, brother of the Emperor of Germany and an admiral in the German navy, visited the United States. In 1904 the Republican ticket, led by President McKinley's Vice-President, Mr. Roosevelt, was triumphantly elected with a popular majority of 2,500,000. The administration of President Roosevelt was marked by the passage of many important measures through Congress. The Federal Government, under the guidance of the President, was especially active against combinations in restraint of trade, discriminations by railroads and the payment by them of rebates to favored shippers. pers. As the result of an investigation carried on by various Gov-gust 5, 1909, of the Payne-Aldrich Law, ernment commissions, suits were brought against the Northern Securities Co., a holding company for the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific railroads, and this combination was declared illegal and was dissolved by the Supreme Court in 1904. The beef trust was prosecuted and declared illegal in the following year. During the 59th Congress, many important measures were passed along the lines indicated above. These included a bill for the regulation of railways, a rigid meat inspection law, and a pure food bill. Other measures provided for the establishment of the Bureau of Immigration, the restriction of Japanese immigration, and the passage of the Aldrich-Vreeland Act, making provision for a monetary commission. The great fire and earthquake in San Francisco occurred in April, 1906. In the year previous, through the good offices of President Roosevelt, the meeting of the Russian and Japanese peace commissioners, at Portsmouth, N. H., resulted in a treaty of peace between the two countries, on September 5, 1905. The United States was obliged to intervene in Cuba owing to an insurrection in that country, and a provisional government was established on September 29, 1906. A customs treaty with Santo Domingo was ratified in 1907. Threatened friction with Japan over conditions in the Orient, especially in China, was averted by an agreement between Elihu Root, Secretary of State, and the Japanese Minister: This agreement provided for the continuance of the "open door" in China, and pledged both governments to consultation before these policies should be changed. The President's aggressive attitude in favor of reform measures brought about sharp opposition, especially in the Senate, on the part of the leaders of the conservative element. This resulted in the ignoring by Congress of many of the policies advocated by the President. President Roosevelt had plainly indicated that he favored William H. Taft, Secretary of War, as his successor. As a result of this support and the popular approval of Taft, he was easily nominated in the Republican National Con- The Democrats nominated vention. William J. Bryan for president and J. W. Kern of Indiana for vice-president. In the voting, Taft was elected by a popular vote of 7,690,006 to 6,409,106 for Bryan. Taft received 321 electoral votes, with 162 for Bryan. The first action of Congress under the administration of President Taft, was the revision of the tariff. Long consideration resulted in the passage, on Auwhich was approved by the President in spite of strong opposition. A notable change in the rules of the House of Representatives was brought about in 1910 through a coalition of Democrats and insurgent Republicans. This resulted in depriving the Speaker of some of his most important powers. During this session of Congress, the most important measures were those for the establishment of a Commerce Court, for a postal savings bank system, the Mann "White Slave" Act, and a measure providing for limitation on contributions to campaign funds. The progressive element of the Republican party had become greatly dissatisfied with President Taft's alleged reactionary stand on important measures, and this feeling was intensified when Theodore Roosevelt returned from a trip to Africa on March 10, 1910, and expressed himself strongly dissatisfied with President Taft's administration. As a result of these conditions, the Democrats in the election of 1910, carried the House of Representatives by a majority of 66 and increased their membership in the Senate. President Taft in 1911 attempted to bring about the passage of the Reciprocity Treaty with Canada. Congress, in special session, passed the bill on July 22. It was, however, rejected by Canada. Largely as a result of a scandal in the election of senators, a constitutional amendment providing for their direct election was submitted to the people in 1912 and was ratified in 1913. In the same year the States ratified the 16th amendment to the Constitution which was submitted in 1911, granting authority to Congress to enact income tax laws. During the session of the 61st Congress, acts were passed for the government of the Panama Canal Zone, and provided for the exemption from tolls of American ships engaged in coastwise trade. An act providing for civil government of Alaska; acts providing for New Mexico and Arizona as separate States; a measure creating the Department of Commerce; and an immigration law containing a literacy test, which, however, was vetoed by the President, were also passed. Foreign relations during these years had many important phases. The forces of occupation were withdrawn from Cuba in 1909. In the same year long-standing differences with Venezuela were peacefully settled. In 1910 Philander C. Knox, Secretary of State, proposed to various nations the establishment of a permanent court of arbitration at The Hague. At the same time treaties of arbitration were negotiated with the principal European countries. Many of these were signed in 1911. The conditions in Mexico from 1910 to 1913 provided difficult problems for President Taft. Large forces of American soldiers were detailed to control the border during the Madero revolution and following. While the administration was opposed to intervention, it sought to protect American interests and lives. In March, 1912, an embargo was placed on the shipment of arms across the border to Mexico. President Taft declined to recognize the government of President Huerta, which succeeded that of Madero in February, 1913. There were three prominent Republican candidates for the Presidency in 1912. These were President Taft, Theodore Roosevelt, and Senator La Follette of Wisconsin. Mr. Roosevelt did not enter the campaign until Senator La Follette was withdrawn. Preferential primaries for presidential candidates were used in many States for the first time prior to the convention. At the National Convention held in Chicago, the contested seats were decided chiefly in favor of Taft delegates. Roosevelt supporters declared the decisions wrongly made and the greater part of them declined to take part in the balloting. President Taft was recommended on the first ballot and James S. Sherman was nominated for the vice-presidency. In the Democratic party there were also several strong candidates. These included Champ mp Clark, the Speaker of the House; Judson Harmon, Governor of Ohio: Woodrow Wilson, Governor of New Jersey; and Oscar W. Underwood, member of Congress from Alabama. At the convention held in Baltimore, there was a strong contest between the Conservatives, led by Alton B. Parker of New York, and the Progressives, led by William J. Bryan. Forty-six ballots were required for the nomination, and Woodrow Wilson was nominated on this ballot, largely through the personal support of Bryan. Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana was nominated for the vice-presidency. Following the nomination of President Taft, President Roosevelt left the Republican party and organized another, called the Progressive party. In August, 1912, delegates of this party met in Chicago and nominated Theodore Roosevelt for president, and Hiram W. Johnson of California for vice-president. The campaign was one of the bitterest ever waged in the history of the country. In the election on November 12, Woodrow Wilson received 6,286,214 popular votes; Theodore Roosevelt, 4,126,020; William H. Taft, 3,483,922. Thus the split in the Republican party resulted in the election of Wilson. A remarkable feature of the voting was the increase in the strength of the Socialist party. This party nearly doubled its vote in 1908. The electoral vote was 435 for Wilson, 88 for Roosevelt, and 8 for Taft. The Democrats also secured the control of the House by a large majority, and of the Senate by 7 votes. Shortly after his inauguration, President Wilson called Congress in special session to revise the tariff. He revived the custom of Washington and Adams and delivered his message to Congress in person. A new tariff act was at once drafted and was passed on October 3, 1913. The bill, in general, greatly reduced the duties, and the loss of revenue was made up by an income tax law which was made a part of the tariff law. Congress at this session also considered the problem of currency reform. This_resulted in the establishment of the Federal Reserve Bank. Foreign relations occupied the greater part of the attention of President Wilson during 1913. The President followed action in refusing to President Tofti 2 recognize General Huerta as president, chiefly on account of the belief that he had connived in the murder of Madero. Relations with Japan also became serious as the result of the passage by the legislature of California of laws prohibiting the ownership of land by aliens who could not be naturalized. The Japanese Government made a strong protest and William J. Bryan, Secretary of State, went to California in an effort to secure a change in the State Legislature. In this he failed. An agreement was arrived at, however, between the United States and Japan, by the terms of which Japan promised to restrict the immigration to the United States. The republic of China was recognized on May 2, 1913. Conditions in Nicaragua resulted in the establishment of a practical American protectorate in that country. On December, 1913, the President delivered a special message on the Mexican situation in which he declared that he saw no reason to "alter our policy of watchful waiting." A bill was passed by Congress providing for an emergency army of 240,000 men. Congress passed many important measures, including the Interstate Trade Commission Bill on December 8, 1914, and the Clayton Anti-Trust Act on October 8, 1914. Largely through the efforts of the President, the Panama Canal Tolls Measure was repealed by Congress, test made by by Great as the result of protest Britain that its terms violated the Hay- Pauncefote Treaty. Early in 1914 the Mexican situation grew more acute. The President lifted the embargo on the shipment of arms into Mexico, and large amounts of munitions were purchased by revolutionists against Huerta. On April 9, a number of American marines were arrested at Tampico by an officer of Huerta. Their surrender and an apology were demanded by Rear-Admiral Mayo, who also insisted on a salute of the United States flag. Huerta refused to yield to this demand, and on April 20 the President requested authority of Congress to employ the forces of the United States to exact reparation. There followed the bombardment and occupation of Vera Cruz, with a loss of 18 American marines. Americans were warned to leave Mexico. While plans were being made for actual hostilities, President Wilson accepted the offer of Argentina, Brazil and Chile to arbitrate the question at issue. The commissioners of these countries met at Niagara Falls. While they were in session, Huerta, having been defeated, rewas relinsigned, and the government quished to Carranza. The United States forces were withdrawn from Vera Cruz in November, 1914. A treaty was negotiated with Colombia by which the United States agreed to pay $25,000,000 to that country for the loss of Panama. This treaty was not ratified by the Senate. Eighteen peace and arbitration treaties were negotiated during this year. United States in the World War.- The policy which was proclaimed by the States at the outset the World War was one of strict neutrality . For nearly three years, this attitude was officially maintained, often under circumstances of great difficulty. Both the Entente and the Central Powers, in their effort to gain gain a real or fancied advantage, violated the letter and spirit of international law, to the prejudice of our undoubted rights. The State Department was constantly busied with correspondence addressed to Great Britain and Germany, calli calling them to account for these violations, and demanding that the offending practices be abandoned. It was realized, however, that both of the warring powers were under great strain, and the diplomatic representations of this country were marked by patience and self-restraint. But from the beginning there was a difference between the injuries we suffered from the belligerents. Only property losses were incurred from the encroachments of Great Britain, as in the case of the British blockade regulations and the blacklist, while Germany's infractions of the law of nations involved the loss of American lives. Financial losses could have been made good at the end of the war; the loss of life was irreparable. Apart from these direct grievances, the tide of popular feeling ran strongly against Germany, because of the violation of Belgian neutrality and the atrocities that marked her conduct of the This sentiment was heightened by war. the propaganda that had its center in the German Embassy at Washington and the ever increasing obstruction, arson and outrage in American plants, in the effort to hinder supplies from being shipped overseas. Moreover the utterances of responsible German statesmen as to German aims in the war created the impression that she was seeking the hegemony not only of Europe and Asia but of the world, and that if successful in Europe, pe, the United States might be the next object of attack. It began to be felt that the cause of the Entente was the cause of freedom and of civilization. That impression became a conviction, when the news came of the sinking of the "Lusitania," May 7, 1915. The details of that tragedy are narrated elsewhere (see LUSITANIA) and need only the barest mention here. This great ocean liner was torpedoed without warning off the Old Head of Kinsale on her journey from New York to Liverpool. She carried 1,257 passengers and a crew of 702. She sank in twenty-three minutes, carrying down 1,150, of whom 124 were Americans, including many women and children. The nation was stunned by the shock. Then came a tremendous outburst of rage and grief, and for a while the country was perilously near the verge of war. It was not the first time that American lives had been lost through submarine operations. One American citizen had perished when the British liner, "Falaba," had been torpedoed and sunk March 28, 1914, off Milford, England. Two others had been killed when the American ship "Gulflight" was attacked off the Scilly Islands, May 1, 1915. These casualties, however, had been explained by the German Government as due to a mistake in the "Gulflight" case, while the "Falaba", it was charged, had tried to escape after having been summoned to stop. Reparation had been promised for the attack on the former. These instances had aroused American indignation, but the feeling occasioned by them was nothing compared to the horror evoked by the wholesale massacre of the "Lusitania's" passengers and crew. A series of three notes was despatched to the German Government, the first bearing the date of May 13, 1915, declaring that the United States Government expected disavowal, reparation and immediate measures to prevent the repetition of the outrage. The reply of the German Foreign Secretary, Von Jagow, dated May 28, declared that the "Lusitania" was an auxiliary cruiser, that it had guns concealed beneath its decks, that it was transporting Canadian troops and munitions of war, and that the rapidity with which it sank was due to the explosion of the munitions carried. Further correspondence was invited. A second American note, despatched June 9, denied that the Lusitania had carried troops or was armed for offense, and asserted that "whatever be the other facts regarding the 'Lusitania,' the principal fact is that a great steamer, primarily and chiefly a conveyance for passengers and carrying more than a thousand souls that had no part or lot in the conduct of the war was torpedoed and sunk without so much as a challenge or a warning, and that men, women and children were sent to their death in circumstances une paralleled in modern warfare." The note called upon the German Government to adopt such principles in its submarine warfare as should safeguard American lives and American ships. The answer to this note was evasive and unsatisfactory. It elicited from the American Government a third and sharper note, which concluded with the phrase that "repetition by the commanders of German naval vessels of acts in contravention of American rights must be regarded by the Government of the United States as deliberately ely unfriendly." The last phrase was a diplomatic plomatic way of saying that war would follow. Pending the interchange of these notes, the German Ambassador, Von Bernstorff, had offered on behalf of his Government to cease submarine warfare, provided that the United States secured certain concessions for Germany from England and should guarantee that vessels coming from American ports should carry no contraband of war. The United States Government refused thus to purchase immunity for its citizens. The correspondence secured no satisfaction for the "Lusitania" massacre, and even during its continuance, similar attacks were made on on the the "Nebraskan," "Neb May 25, the "Orduna," July 9, while on Aug. 19, two American citizens were drowned in the sinking of the British steamer "Arabic." On Sept. 1, 1915, however, Count von Bernstorff informed Secretary Lansing that passenger liners would not thenceforth be sunk by German submarines without warning and without taking measures to assure the safety of non-combatants, on condition that the steamers would not try to escape or offer resistance. A message of the same tenor was received from Von Jagow on Sept. 21. On Oct. 5, the sinking of the "Arabic" was disavowed by Von Berstorff in the name of his Government, which expressed regret, its way from that March 24, 1916. promised indemnity, and declared submarines cluding some orders had been issued to that were so rigorous that the recur- wounded. rence of such incidents was considered impossible. The protests of the United States against lawless submarine attacks were not confined to Germany alone. The Italian liner "Ancona" was destroyed by an Austrian submarine in the Mediterranean Sea, Nov. 7, 1915. Of 507 persons on board, 308 were lost, of whom were Americans. The submarine 9 shelled the helpless passengers, as they the lifewere trying to get away in the boats. Correspondence ensued with Austrian Government, which finally, on Dec. 29, announced that the commander of the submarine had been punished, and , to promised, with some reservations indemnify the families of the victims. Another item in the account with Aussubtria was an attack by an Austrian marine, Dec. 5, 1915, on the American of oil steamer "Petrolite," off the coast Tripoli. A sailor was wounded, and the even after submarine still kept on firing, to the "Petrolite" had swung broadside , could so that the submarine commander see her name printed on her side and her mast. the American flag flying at from the ves- Stores were also taken . sel before she was allowed to proceed Representations made by this Governof the ment were met by a flat denial Britfacts. An attack was made on the ish passenger liner "Persia" by a subsoutheast marine in the Mediterranean were of Crete, Dec. 30, 1915. 335 lives lost, including two Americans, of whom on his way one was an American consul to his post at Aden. The wake of the was torpedo that destroyed the ship submarine itclearly seen, but as the Austria self was not visible, Germany, , and Turkey denied responsibility. The winter of 1915-1916 was comparatively quiet, but with the coming of submarine spring there was a revival of outrages. March 1, 1916, the French " with Americans on board liner "Patria was attacked without warning, but Norwegian escaped. On March 9, a sunk in Havre ship, the "Silius" was Roads, and one American in the crew Tuwas injured. The Dutch steamer " bantia" was torpedoed on the night of Sea. Amer- March 15, 1916, in the North were saved icans were on board but . On March 18, the "Berwindvale" with four Americans on board was torpedoed were off Bantry, Ireland, but no lives lost. A wanton attack, and one that prothe voked a new crisis, was that on on French Channel steamer "Sussex" Folkestone to Dieppe, Eighty passengers, in- Americans were killed or This flagrant case brought this country to the very edge of hostilideclared ties. The German authorities that the "Sussex" must have struck a British mine. It was admitted that a long, black steamer was torpedoed in the Channel by one of their submarines, a Britbut it was declared that it was ish warship or mine layer. Irrefutable proofs were furnished by this Governstatements ment of the falsity of these . On April 18, Secretary Lansing despatched a note to the German Governthat ment, which expressed regret that the grav- Government did not understand ity of the situation resulting not only the from the "Sussex" attack, but from submarine whole German method of Germany's warfare. The note recalled promise to respect passenger ships, and of her asserted that the commanders submarines had violated that promise, Ameriwith the result that the list of had cans who had thus lost their lives it had been steadily lengthening until the now reached 100. The patience of adverted United States Government was to, and the note went on to say that it evident that had now "become painfully Governthe position that the American ment took at the very outset had been of subjustified, namely, that the use marines for the destruction of an en- , beemy's commerce was, of necessity cause of the very character of the vesmethods of sels employed and the very of attack which their employment course involved, utterly incompatible , the with the principles of humanity incontrovertible long-established shed and the sacred imrights of neutrals and ." At the munities of non-combatants warned end of the note, Germany is purpose to perthat if it was still her sist in prosecuting relentless and indis- Govcriminate warfare, the American but to ernment would have no choice sever diplomatic relations. The German reply, though delayed until May 4, showed that the Imperial recognize Government was beginning to had nearly that American patience still proreached the breaking point. It charged tested that many of the offenses against her commanders were due to in all wars, mistakes, such as occurred that the Gerand it was also contended man submarine warfare was only a reinternasponse to British violations of tional law that virtually condemned children to starmillions of women and vation. But a pregnant concession was made in the following announcement: received "German naval forces have this order: In accordance with the general principles of visit and search and the destruction of vessels recognized by international law, such vessels, both within and without the area declared a naval war zone, shall not be sunk without warning and without saving human lives, unless the ship attempt to escape or offer resistance. A loophole for escape from this categorical cal promise promise was left, however, in the expression of hope that the United States Government would forthwith secure from the British Government a stricter observance of the rules of international law and the statement that "should steps taken by the United States not obtain the object it deserves, to have the laws of humanity followed by all the belligerent nations, the German Government would then be facing a new situation, in which it must reserve to itself complete liberty of decision." In its reply, taking cognizance of the German promise, the United States Government was careful to disclaim any obligation to offer a quid pro quo for the concession. "In order to avoid any possible misunderstanding," the note declares, "the Government of the United States notifies the Imperial Government that it cannot for a moment entertain, much less discuss, a suggestion that respect by German naval authorities for the rights of citizens of the United States upon the high seas should in any way or in the slightest degree be made contingent upon the conduct of any other Government affecting the rights of neutrals and non-combatants. Responsibility in such matters is single, not joint; absolute, not relative." For a time after this promise was given, it was generally respected, and it began to seem as if actual participation by America in the war might be avoided. Although from British sources came the statement that by Oct. 1, 15 vessels had been sunk without the warning that Germany had explicitly promised to give, the American State Department had no satisfactory evidence to support the statement. On July 9, 1916, the German submarine "Deutschland," a commercial vessel entered the port of Norfolk and proceeded to Baltimore. No attempt was made by this Government to discriminate between it and any other commercial ship in the matter of port facilities. This led to a remonstrance on the part of the Allied nations, directed to all neutral nations, but primarily directed at the United States with the "Deutschland" incident in view. The Entente view was that the peculiar characteristics of submarines are such that they ought not to be allowed the same port privileges as other merchant vessels. Among these characteristics were the ability to dive, by which they could avoid control and identification, so that their character as neutral or belligerent, as naval or merchant vessel, could not be ascertained. The United States, however, refused to accept this reasoning as a rule of action. Much less peaceful was the visit of the German war submarine, the "U-53," which unannounced entered Newport harbor, Oct. 7, 1916, and after delivering mail for the German Embassy, departed after a few hours' stay. Within the next two days, the "U-53" had sunk in swift succession one Dutch, one Norwegian and three British ships, within sight of the American coast. Legal warning was given in each case, and the crews permitted to escape, some of the latter being picked up by American destroyers in the vicinity. The bringing of the submarine war to this side of the ocean created considerable excitement, and the question was raised whether the action of the submarine did not constitute a blockade of the American coast and an infringement upon American rights. The matter, however, was permitted to stay in abeyance. On Oct. 30 the British ship "Marina" was torpedoed while on her way to this country and six Americans of fifty who were on board were killed. Then came an attack upon the American steamer "Chemung" and that on the steamer of 17 American "Russian" with a loss lives. No adequate explanation was forthcoming. While the two countries were by these occurrences being brought nearer the brink of war, efforts were being made by the President of the United States to find some common grounds on which, peace might be secured, or negotiations at least opened, between the Entente and the Central Powers. The occasion was offered by the German announcement on Dec. 12, 1916, that the Imperial Government was ready to enter into peace negotiations. The terms were couched, however, so much in the spirit of a victor magnanimously offering peace to the vanquished that they were emphatically, almost curtly, refused by all the Allied nations. Despite this refusal, the time (Dec. 18), seemed auspicious for the President of the greatest of the neutrals to act as mediator, although he stated that the plan had been conceived long before the issuance of Germany's offer. What the President sought to obtain was a concrete statement of terms, on which negotiations might be initiated. The crux of his note was contained in the passage: "The leaders of the several belligerents have stated those objects (i. e. of the war), in general terms. But stated in general terms, they seem the same on both sides. Never yet have the authoritative spokesmen on either side avowed the precise objects which would, if attained , satisfy them and their people that the war had been fought out. The world has been left to conjecture what definite results, what actual guarantees, what political or territorial changes or readjustments, what stage of military success even, would bring the war to an end." The President's views found an echo in the United States Senate, which passed a resolution approving it. The note also created a profound sensation in the nations at war. By the peoples of the Central Powers it was in the main approved, largely because of the favorable military situation in which at the moment they found themselves . By the Allies, however, much of whose territory was occupied by German forces, the note was received without enthusiasm and in some quarters with thinly veiled resentment. The Allies, however , seized the occasion to present to the world a detailed statement of the principal aims they had in view in the war they were waging. Those aims are narrated in full in another place (see WORLD WAR). To this statement, the erman Government made rejoinder on Jan. 11, in a note which scouted the demands of the Entente, declared that Germany had made a sincere attempt to open negotiations for peace and placed all blame for the war's continuance upon the shoulders of their enemies. The net result of the President's effort was nil. A significant episode in connection with the speech was a statement issued by Secretary Lansing on Dec. 20, two days later. He stated that the note had been prompted by the fact that "we ourselves are drawing nearer the verge of war." This official statement created great alarm, so great indeed that the Secretary felt impelled later in the same day to explain away the indiscreet utterance. His efforts were only effectual in part, however, and uneasiness persisted. It was felt that more was going on behind the veil of diplomatic exchanges than had hitherto been suspected. Undeterred by the failure of his first effort, the President again, on Jan. 22, took upon himself the rôle of mediator . This time it was in the form of an address before the Senate. The avowed object of the speech was to specify the conditions under which the United States might conceivably join a league to enforce peace throughout the world, but the real reason for its delivery was to bring the conflict then in being ng to an end. The effect of the speech, which in the main was admirable in spirit and form, was measurably diminished by the phrase "peace with out victory," which aroused keen resentment among the Allied nations and met with marked disapproval on the part of a large body of influential opinion in America. At this juncture came the announcement of Germany's determination to embark on ruthless submarine warfarea most momentous announcement that spelled the doom of the German cause. It burst upon the neutral world with stunning effect. On Jan. 31, 1917 , Von Bernstorff handed the text of the German note on submarine warfare to the American Secretary of State. At the same time an identical note was delivered to all the neutral governments. It stated that beginning on the following day, Feb. 1, all merchant ships bound to or from allied ports , found in a prohibited zone, would be sunk without warning. This revoked the promise that had been made to the United States in the "Sussex" case. The prohibited zone included the waters bordering France, England and Holland , and certain sections of the Mediterranean. The one exception allowed to the United States was that once a week she could despatch a ship to Falmouth , England, and have one sail from Falmouth to the United States, provided that the ship bore certain markings, followed a specified route and carried no contraband. The justification for the step was given in the statement that since the attempt to come to an understanding with the Entente Powers had been answered by them by the announcement of an intensified continuation of the war , the Imperial Government was compelled to continue the struggle for existence by the full employment of all weapons that lay in its power. At the same hour that the note was handed to the neutral powers, the German Chancellor, Von Bethmann-Hollweg, in the Reichstag, amplified the substance of the note, explaining why he had previously opposed ruthless submarine war and the steps by which he in common with the German military authorities had come to determine upon its prosecution, and declared in conclusion that "in now deciding to employ the best and sharpest weapon, we are guided solely by a sober consideration of all the circumstances that come into question, and by a firm determination to help our people out of the distress and disgrace which our enemies contemplate for them." The sensation produced by this determination was prodigious. It deepened the conviction that when the Secretary of State had let slip the statement, previously referred to, about this country's being "near the verge of war," he must have had some intimation, either from Ambassador Gerard in Berlin or from the chancelleries of the Allied nations, that ruthless warfare was contemplated. For some days following the delivery of the submarine note, the country was in a fever of excitement. No intimation was given as to what the President would do, although it was known, on Feb. 2, that he had reached a decision of some kind. On that date, he conferred with the Cabinet, and late in the afternoon consulted with a number of senators at the Capitol. Early on Feb. 3, he announced that he would on that day address both houses of Congress. Before he made the address, however, he informed Secretary of State Lansing that he had determined to break off diplomatic relations with Germany. At two o'clock that afternoon, he appeared addres Congress. before the joint gathering of Congress. Floors and galleries were packed acked with members and spectators, in a tense attitude of repressed excitement and expectation. The address lasted half an hour, and was listened to with the most profound attention. The President reviewed the details of the "Sussex" case that had ended with the assurance of the German Government that it would not henceforth sink merchant ships without warning and without taking precautions for the safety of their passengers and crews. He recalled that this Government had threatened to break off diplomatic relations unless such promise should be given. That promise had now been broken, and the only course left that was consistent with the honor and dignity of the United States was to make good its threat. The President had therefore directed the Secretary of State to announce to the German Ambassador that all diplomatic relations between the two Governments were severed, to hand him his passports, and at the same time to recall the American Ambassador from Berlin. In concluding, the President expressed the hope that, despite Germany's declaration, she would not actually embark upon ruthless submarine warfare, and stated that only actual overt acts on her part would make him believe it. If, however, this hope should prove unfounded, and if American ships and American lives should be destroyed by such acts on the part of her submarine commanders, in contravention of international law and the dictates of humanity, the President stated that he would again take the liberty of coming before Congress to ask of it authority to take whatever measures might be necessary to protect our seamen and our people: in the prosecution of their legitimate errands on the high seas. The speech received the immediate and hearty indorsement of the American people, regardless of party. It was felt that no other course could possibly be followed without the loss of national self-respect. There was no delusion as to what was implied in the breaking off of diplomatic relations. Almost invariably in modern times, such an act had been the prelude to war, and in the state of popular feeling there was little reason to think that this would prove an exception. But as between war and national degradation the nation had decided on its course. Now that the decision had been actually reached there was no delaying or hesitation. In fact, at the precise moment that the President began his address, the German Ambassador received his passports from Secretary Lansing. Steps were instantly taken to receive a guarantee of safe conduct out of the country, and this was granted by Great Britain and France within fortyeight hours. The Scandinavian-American liner, "Frederick VIII.," was placed at his disposal; and on this vessel, accompanied by his suite and many German consuls and propagandists, he left the port of New York, Feb. 14, 1917. It was a regrettable fact that similar courtesy was not extended to Ambassador Gerard at Berlin. In defiance of all the amenities that usually attend such departures, he was kept in the German capital for an indefensible length of time by something closely resembling force. The official instructions from the United States Government did not reach Ambassador Gerard until Feb. 5, and immediately upon their receipt he asked the German Foreign Office for his passports. At the same time, he committed American interests to the legations of Spain and Holland. But although he was promised his passports they were not forthcoming, and he was subjected to a host of annoyances. His mail was withheld, his telephone service cut off and his telegrams were not sent. He was unable to communicate with United States consuls in Germany, and in fact, if not in name, was a prisoner, kept under constant surveillance. During this period, repeated attempts were made by the German authorities to secure a reaffirmation of the old treaty between the United States and Prussia, whose terms, it was thought, would safeguard the German ships in American ports. This, however, was emphatically refused by Mr. Gerard, as it was later by the American Government, when overtures were made to it directly. The Ambassador finally succeeded in leaving the German capital on Feb. 10, and reached the Swiss frontier the following afternoon. While the German Government had vernment had contemplated ted the possibility of diplomatic relations being severed with America, as the result of its pronouncement regarding ruthless warfare, there was no doubt that it had cherished hope that such a step would not be taken. On Feb. 12, Secretary Lansing gave out a memorandum that had been presented to him by Dr. Paul Fitter, the Swiss Minister to this country, in whose care Von Bernstorff nad left German interests. The memorandum intimated that the submarine or er might be modified in favor of the United States, providing that the commercial blockade England were not thereby affected. The American Government refused to discuss the matter, unless and until the German Government renewed the assurance given in the Sussex case, and acted upon that assurance. Chagrined at its failure, the German Government reiterated that unrestricted war against all vessels in the barred zones was under full swing and would under no circumstances be abandoned. Coincident with the breaking off of diplomatic relations, was the extensive sabotage carried out by the crews of German ships interned in the harbors of this country. There were 91 of ships, totaling 594,696 gross tons. these, 31 were in New York harbor, their value estimated at $29,000,000. During the three days from Jan. 31, to Feb. 2, parts of the engines of the ships were either destroyed or removed, so that in the event of their seizure by Government they would be unavailable for cargo or passenger purposes for months. The precision and thoroughness with which this work was done indicated that it was the result of orders from the German Embassy or Govern- Under international law, this ment. could not be prevented, as long as war had not been declared, and the captains and crews were left in undisturbed possession of their vessels, the Government contenting itself with the establishment of armed guards on the piers at which the ships were moored, to prevent any attempt that might be made to sink them and thus obstruct navigation. Other military precautions were taken. The public were forbidden access to navy yards and government buildings. Arsenals, bridges, subway aqueducts, reservoirs and goventrances, rances, ernment plants were placed under strict guard. The Panama Canal was carefully watched. The erection of a new fort was begun at Rockaway Point, in order to strengthen the defense of New York harbor. Legislative action was also taken looking toward preparedness. The House, on Feb. 12, passed the largest Naval Appropriation bill in the history of the nation, carrying over $368, 000,000. The President was authorized to commandeer shipyards and munition plants in case of war or national emergency. Almost immediately after the diplomatic break with Germany, the United States Government addressed a note to the other neutral nations, advising them of the act and the reasons that prompted it, and expressing the hope that they would see their way clear to taking similar action. None, however, went against that far, though protests varying in force were sent by all of them to Germany. Ruthless submarine warfare had been carried on with vigor for nearly four weeks, when, on Feb. 26, President Wilson addressed a joint session of Congress, and asked that he be given authority to supply guns and ammunition to American merchant ships, and employ any other instrumentalities that American might be necessary to protect ect citizens and interests on the high seas. He cited two recent cases in which American ships, the "Housatonic" and such the " Lyman M. Law, " had been sunk, Of and pointed out that the submarines were acting as an embargo on American trade. Even while he was proceeding to the Capitol to deliver his address, news came of another sinking to be added to the list, that of the Cunard liner "Laconia," in which American by this Immediately after the lives were lost. In President's appeal, a bill was introduced in the House embodying most of his suggestions and, after a debate in which partisanship played no part, was passed, March 1. In the Senate, however, the bill failed to pass, although an overwhelming majority was in favor of it. A determined filibuster was organized by a small group, who, under the rules of the Senate, were able to prolong debate until the bill died automatically at the ending of the session March 4. The President appealed to the country, and the almost overwhelming response convinced him of the depth of the indignation that had been aroused by the action of the recalcitrant group of senators. On March 9, he issued a proclamation calling Congress to meet in special session on April 16. No purpose was specified, though it was intimated that the President wanted the support of Congress in any action he might find necessary to take for the public defense. At the same time a statement was issued from the White House that the President was convinced of his right to direct the arming of merchant ships by Presidential proclamation. This he did on March 12. On that date all members of the diplomatic corps in Washington were informed by Secretary Lansing that, in view of the course of the German Government in sinking ships without warning, the Government of the United States had determined to place upon all American merchant vessels, whose course lay through the barred zone, armed guards for the protection of vessels and lives. In the short space that intervened between the issuance of the proclamation and the actual declaration of war, the position of the United States was that of armed neutrality. The indorsement of the President's action by the country at large was made the more emphatic because of a sensational episode growing out of the correspondence of the German Foreign Secretary with the German Minister to Mexico. A letter was published March 1 that was dated Jan. 19, 1917, and signed by Zimmermann, German Foreign Secretary. It told the German Minister, Von Eckhardt, that Germany intended on Feb. 1 to begin unrestricted submarine warfare, and that this might endanger relations with the United States. In that event, Von Eckhardt was directed to propose to Mexico that she and Germany any make war and make peace together. Germany was to furnish financial support to Mexico, and the latter was to recover her "lost territory" in New Mexico, Arizona and Texas. The "details" of this program were to be left to Von Eckhardt. As if this large order were not enough, he was also to suggest that the President of Mexico communicate this plan to Japan and seek to secure the latter's adherence. While the ingenuousness of the plan was not without its elements of humor, the publication of the letter hardened the determination of the United States to pursue the course it was treading, even if it should lead to war. The revelation of diplomatic clumsiness was particularly disconcerting to Germany and the pro- German elements in this country. The letter was denounced in some quarters as a patent forgery, but on March 3, Zimmermann himself acknowledged that it was genuine and sought to defend it. Mexico made haste to deny any implication in the matter and Japan denounced it as a "monstrous plot" that, if proposed to the Japanese Government, would not be entertained for an instant. These disclaimers, which in the case of Japan at any rate was unnecessary, were accepted by our Government, and interest in the matter was soon lost in the greater events that followed. For the American Government had at last decided on war as the only solution consistent with American dignity and honor. Its patience had been exhausted and its people goaded to the utmost. The sinkings grew in volume, and it was evident that Germany had thrown discretion to the winds and was daring the American people to meet the issue. On March 2, the American steamship, "Algonquin," on its way from New York to London, was attacked by a submarine without warning and sunk, the crew being rescued later, after 27 hours in open boats. On March 18 three ships bearing the American flag were sunk off the English coast by submarines. These were the "City of Memphis," the "Illinois" and the "Vigilancia." Fifteen of the crew of the latter were lost. On the day after this news was received many measures were taken by this Government that foreshadowed the coming conflict. Orders were given to speed up work on warships under construction; two classes of midshipmen were ordered to be graduated ahead of time; the eight-hour day for Government naval work was suspended, arrangements were made for the issue of bonds for naval purposes. A long Cabinet session was held, at which it was decided that Congress should be called in session at an earlier date than that previously announced. On March 21 the President issued a call for Congress to meet on April 2, "to receive a communication by the Executive on grave questions of national policy which should immediately be taken under consideration." No one doubted that this sentence could be compressed into a single word-war. The Sixty-fifth Congress convened in special session at noon on April 2. The President, escorted by a squadron of cavalry, reached the Capitol in the evening. At about 8.40, he began his address, after having been greeted with a tremendous ovation. He spoke for 36 minutes and was listened to with breathless attention. He recited the offenses of Germany against this Government, and recommended Congress to declare "the recent course of the Imperial German Government to be in fact nothing less than war against the Government and people of the United States" and that Congress "formally accept the status of belligerent that had thus been thrust upon it." A notable passage of the speech was that in which he defined the issue as one between autocracy and democracy. "The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty. We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensations for the sacrifices we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions of the rights of mankind." At the conclusion of the President's address, he was wildly cheered, the whole audience rising to its feet and waving flags. Immediately after the President's withdrawal, both Houses assembled in separate session, and bills were introduced embodying the President's recommendations. On April 4, by a vote of 82 to 6, the war resolution was passed by the Senate. On April 6 it was passed by the House of Representatives by a vote of 373 to 50. At 1.18 p. m., it was signed by the President, thus making the United States and Germany officially at war. Simultaneously the President issued an address to the American people, announcing the existence of a state of war and prescribing rules for the behavior and treatment of enemy aliens. The text of the Declaration of War was as follows: Whereas, the Imperial German Government has committed repeated acts of war against the Government and the people of the United States of America; therefore be it Resolved, by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the state of war between the United States and the Imperial German Government, which has thus been thrust upon the United States, is hereby formally declared; and That the President be and he is hereby, authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial German Government; and to bring the conflict to a successful termination all the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States. The declaration was received by the nation without any outburst of hysterical excitement. Its coming had been too apparent to have in it any element of surprise. But except in some pacifist quarters, it was received with the heartiest approval and a whole-souled determination to bend every effort toward securing victory. It had been feared that riots would be instigated by some of the 10,000,000 citizens of Teutonic birth and sympathies, but although there were some minor disorders, less than 100 arrests in all were made. The Socialist party alone expressed formal opposition to the war, and lost a considerable part of its following in consequence. Rarely has a nation facing a great conflict been so united in spirit and purpose. It is true that the great body of the people failed to realize the great part that America was to take in the war. It was generally expected that our participation would be limited to the navy and to the furnishing of money, munitions and food. That we should be called upon to raise an army of 5,000,000 men, of whom more than 2,000,000 would be actually carried overseas was probably believed by none. But even if it had been, there would have been no softening of the national purpose to prosecute the war to a successful termination. By the nations of the Entente, the decision of the United States was received with the greatest relief and enthusiasm. They saw certain victory in the accession of so formidable an ally. By the neutral nations also, who had so many causes for grievance against Germany, the declaration was in general approved, though from motives of discretion their expressions were restrained. Some of them, however, deemed the action regrettable, because they had pinned their hopes to America's mediation in securing the world's peace. Germany received the news with blended feelings. In many influential quarters there was a frank acknowledgment of the seriousness of the step that placed the richest and most powerful nation in the world on the side of her enemies. Others ridiculed the military power of this country, and predicted that our opposition would prove negligible. It was urged that redoubled efforts be made to crush the forces of the Entente, before America's help could be made available. It was freely prophesied that the submarines would prevent any American transport from landing troops in France. And even if this hope failed and American troops were brought into action, it was declared that they could never sustain the onset of German veterans. Although there had been much complaint of the country's unpreparedness for war, prior to the declaration, there was no legitimate ground for criticism of the energy and resolution with which all departments of the Government began to function, immediately after the state of war became a fact. The instant the news was flashed from Washington, port officials everywhere, accompanied by detachments of Federal troops, seized all sdo German ships that were lying in American Harbors. There were 91 of these in all. With the exception of a German gunboat at Manila, that was blown up by its officers, all were taken possession of without serious incident. The crews were interned at stations on shore, and Government machinists were put at work repairing the damaged machinery of the vessels. The radio system throughout the United States was also taken under Government control. Every wireless station, not only on this continent, but also in all our island possessions, was seized on April 6, in conformity with the order of President Wilson. Those that might be useful were retained in operation, but others were dismantled and suppressed. All amateur wireless plants were forbidden to function. Barred zones were established about the entire coast line of the United States, varying in width from two to ten miles. Vessels were forbidden to enter ports at night, and their ingress and egress in the daytime were conformed to strict rules that were enforced by an extensive coast patrol. Hand in hand with these defensive measures, went energetic preparation for offense. Even prior to the declaration of war, orders had been issued March 25-26, for the mobilization of 37 units-regiments and battalions of the National Guard, for the purpose ostensibly of policing threatened points but really to get ready for war. The 22,- 000 men who had been on border duty near Mexico, though they were due to be mustered out, were retained in the service. By April 1, more than 60,000 of the entire National Guard of 150,000 men were under arms, and the mobilization had outrun the equipment that was ready for them. In the Navy, also, work was rushed with all possible speed. An executive order was issued, March 26, increasing the enlisted naval strength to 87,000 men. Ensigns were rushed from Annapolis three months before graduation. The marine corps was increased to 17,- 000 men. Retired officers were called back for bureau work, so that younger men might be released for active service. By June 6, American warships had arrived off the coast of France. Naval bases were established on both the French and English coasts as stations for American destroyers, co-operating with the Allied navies against German submarines. In addition, over 200 merchantmen had been provided with guns and crews to work them before the end of August. Army work was necessarily slower, because of the magnitude gnitude of of the demands of this arm of the service. The regular army had been recruited to its full authorized strength of 300,000 men by August 9. By August 5, the National Guard regiments had also swelled to their full strength of 300,000 men. The aggregate fighting strength of the two bodies was 650,000 men, many of whom had been well drilled, but most of whom had seen no actual fighting. And much of what these knew had to be promptly unlearned, in order to conform to the new tactics and strategy developed by the war. By this time, the conviction had dawned upon the nation and its leaders that military operations must be participated in by American troops on a vastly greater scale than had been anticipated at the beginning. At first it had been thought possible to increase the armies to the required size by voluntary enlistments. But it soon became evident that other methods must be adopted, if America's intervention was to be prompt and effective. Conscription had an unpleasant sound to American ears, but its necessity became so apparent that the Selective Draft Act, when it was approved on May 18, met with general approbation. The first application of the act resulted in the registration of over 9,500,000 young men on June 5, and the subsequent calling into service from this number of 687,000 on July 20. So energetically was the work carried on that by the end of August the men were streaming into the cantonments and army posts that had been selected as training grounds. Thirty-two great cantonments in various parts of the country were planned and built in record time, and great numbers of officers were being trained at Plattsburg and similar camps established for that purpose. The legislative branch of the government made movements on so great a scale possible by liberal appropriations. Partisanship was laid aside, and both parties stood loyally behind the Executive in all action looking toward a successful prosecution of the war. On June 15 an appropriation bill carrying over $3,000,000,000 for army and navy purposes was signed by the President, and a little over a month later an appropriation of $640,000,000 was made for the aviation service. It was estimated by Secretary of the Treasury McAdoo on July 24, that $5,000,000,000, in addition to what had been already authorized, would be necessary to finance the war up to June 30, 1918. Taxation and the issue of bonds on an unprecedented scale were foreshadowed by this announcement, but the sacrifice was cheerfully made. The fest Liberty Loan which called for two billion dollars was oversubscribed by nore than a billion . The campaign for the loan opened May 2, and closed June 15, and its raising was attended by a spirit of enthusiasm and patriotism that showed how deeply the nation was stirred. The enormously important economic feature of national defense was not overlooked. It was realized that this was a war of resources and that the nation that could hold out for "the last quarter of an hour" would win . A nation-wide system of activities was organized that enlisted the ablest business minds of the country in the Council of National Defense, which had as its official nucleus the members of the Cabinet. The Council was sub-divided into a number of committees, each headed by a recognized expert, and their work went on under the control and supervision of the various Government departments. Herbert C. Hoover, who had demonstrated his executive ability by his work in connection with the Belgian Relief Commission , was made the head of the Food Board, whose work was to mobilize the agricultural resources of the country, stimulate economy and production, prevent waste and assure an adequate food supply not only for civilians but for the army and navy, as well as to supplement the failing resources of the Allied nations . The operation of the railroads was put under the control of a railway board, in order to prevent freight congestion and send goods by the quickest and shortest routes. A committee on raw materials saw to it that the Government secured the requisite amount of copper, steel and other products. The Federal Shipping Board was authorized to build a fleet of wooden cargo ships, 1,000 in number and from 3,000 to 5,000 tons burden. These, it was figured, would make up largely for the damage done to shipping by the submarines, and keep up a steady stream of supplies to Europe. Cyc 8 Important acts passed by_Congress strengthened the hands of the Executive. The Espionage Act dealt with internal foes, with especial bearing on the activities of resident enemy aliens. Death or imprisonment was provided for convicted spies. Penalties were appended for any interference with commerce carried on with the Allied nations . More rigid restrictions were put on passports. The use of search warrants was extended. The Embargo Act provided for a system of licensing the transfer of commodities abroad, and was designed to prevent supplies being shipped to neutral ports which might get into the hands of Germany, either through deliberate design through the natural channels of trade. The act was resented by neutrals, who feared that their legitimate needs might go unsupplied, but it was warmly comed by the Allies, who saw in this tightening of the blockade against Germany an effective means of shortening the war. or y wel- While the cause of the Allies was being strengthened by the accession of the United States, it was being weakened by the threatened collapse of Russia. That nation, whose great work in the early years of the war had done so much toward barring Germany's path to conquest, was threatening to withdraw from the conflict. The breakdown of the entire Eastern front was foreshadowed . The Czar had been overthrown, disintegrating forces were everywhere at work, and the former empire was in a welter of chaos and confusion. The serious results to the Allied cause of Russia's defection were apparent. The Central Powers, relieved of the necessity of fighting on two fronts, could concentrate on one. Rumania , deprived of Russia's support, would fall an easy prey to the German armies. A million men could be hurried across Germany to be hurled against the hard-pressed Allies in the west. Austria would be able to give her undivided attention to Italy. The war would be prolonged indefinitely, and immensely greater demands would be made on American blood and treasure anticipated. than had been ant To prevent this calamity, it was thought advisable by the United States Government that a commission be sent to Russia to assure her of this country's sympathy and support, to urge her adherence to the cause of the Entente, and to promise help in developing her resources and re-establishing her transportation system, that had utterly broken down. The Commission headed by Elihu Root , former Secretary of State, and comprised naval and military officials, practical railway men and was Vol. X representative citizens. It reached Petrograd June 13, 1917, and was received with respect, and in some quarters with cordiality. The aims of the Commission had been previously communicated to the Russian Government then in power by President Wilson. The work of the Commission was carried on with great energy and ability, and by July 10 Mr. Root was so encouraged that he declared that it had accomplished what it had gone to Russia to do and that it had found "no organic or incurable malady in the Russian democracy." This same view was held by him when the Commission returned to the United States and made its report to Washington on Aug. 12. Events, however, showed that he had been too optimistic. Russia passed from democracy to Bolshevism and with- Irew from the war. Still, the Root Commission had a real value in deferring, if it could not prevent, the Russian collapse. Military preparations went on with increased energy as the signs of Russian weakening multiplied. On Aug. 14, President Wilson sent to the Senate for confirmation the names of 37 major-generals and 147 brigadier-generals, whom he had appointed as officers in the National Army. Radical changes were made in army organization to embody the lessons learned by the Allies in three years of war. The ratio of artillery strength to infantry was greatly increased. It was ordered that there should be three regiments of field artillery to every four regiments of infantry, instead of the former ratio of three to nine. The machinegun arm was also materially enlarged. The one regiment of cavalry, that was previously a unit in every division, was abolished, as cavalry had been shown to be a comparatively unimportant factor in the war, except in the Far East. Many new services were provided for, such as gas and flame service, service, ervice, Forestry forestry iments, trench, mortar, anti-aircraft and chemical units demanded by the exigencies of this greatest of all wars. A notable episode and one that symbolized to the world the actual entry of America into active warfare was the arrival in Europe, June 8, 1917, of Major-General John J. Pershing, who had been chosen as Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces abroad. He was accompanied by his staff of 53 officers and 146 men. He received an enthusiastic greeting in London and a thrilling welcome in France, he was looked upon as the leader of a coming army of 20th Century Crusaders. He visited the tomb of Napoleon and laid a wreath on the tomb of Lafayette. Long conferences were held with the military authorities regarding American participation in the conflict. It was announced that General Pershing would determine where the American expedition should be sent, and that his decision would be final. He was to be an independent commander, in absolute control of his own forces, but co-operating with the British and the French. This arrangement continued in force until, as will will be be narrated later, General, afterward Marshal, Ferdinand Foch was made Generalissimo of the Allied forces, March 28, 1918. The first units of the United States army that were to fight abroad reached a French port on June 26 and 27. They had been despatched in compliance with a Presidential order of May 18. They received a magnificent welcome from enormous crowds while bands played the "Star Spangled Banner" and the "Marseillaise." The detachment was under the command of Major-General William L. Sibert. They and the troops that soon began to follow in an ever increasing stream were placed in French camps behind the firing line, where they were given intensive training by war veterans of the French and British armies. After this training was completed, they were placed in the trenches on comparatively quiet sectors near Toul and in Lorraine The Germans soon learned of their pres ence, and subjected them to artillery fire, gas attacks and bombs dropped from airplanes. The Americans, in conjunc tion with the French, took part in trench raids and minor operations, and soon a growing casualty list gave warning of the sacrifice of life that was to be demanded of America before victory could be achieved. The pressing need of shipping to transfer men and supplies to France was met in several ways. By Jan. 29, 1918, it was announced that the damage done by the crews to the seized German ships had been repaired, thus making available a tonnage of over 600,000. B 600,000. By an agreement with Japan and some of the neutral nations, 400,000 more tons were added to the total. On March 14, the United States and Great Britain announced their intention of seizing over 600,000 tons of Dutch shipping that was lying in their harbors, making compensation for them at the end of the war, in the meantime supplying food and fuel to Holland. This action was protested by the Dutch Government, though it was strictly in accordance with the principles of international law, and was duly carried out. It was stated in Washington on Nov. 7, 1917, that the army at that time was 1,800,000 strong. A movement was set on foot to classify the 9,000,000 registrants under the first draft, putting into Class I those who were unmarried or without dependents, and making them the first ones subject to the nation's call. It was believed that by this method, 2,000,- 000 more men would be made almost immediately available for service. Notable among the non-military events shortly following the advent of America as a combatant had been the Pope's appeal for peace. This was made public in this country on Aug. 16, 1917. The letter was couched in a benevolent form, and was received with respect because of the position held by the author and the lofty sentiments that inspired it. Pope Benedict, after deploring the horrors of the conflict, suggested as a basis of settlement a decrease of armaments, the freedom of the seas, no indemnity, the evacuation of Belgium, and the restitution of the German colonies. While the appeal was addressed to all the belligerents, ats, the answer of the Entente was embodied in a reply to the letter made by President Wilson on Aug. 27. He pointed out that the Pontiff's proposal practically involved a return to the status quo ante. This, in view of Germany's unrepentance and continuing ambition, would only give that Government time for a recuperation of its strength and renewal of the attack upon civilization. He declared that "we cannot take the word of the present rulers of Germany as a guarantee of anything that will endure unless explicitly supported by such conclusive evidence of the will and purpose of the German people themselves as the other peoples of the world would be justified in accepting." The answer was approved heartily by all the nations of the Entente. By the German Government and press it was bitterly denounced as an attempt to drive a wedge between the Government and the people. The replies of the German Powers to the Pope, while sympathetic, were non-committal, and the intervention had no result. The alertness of the American Secret Service, which had previously caused Germany such discomfiture by the publication of the Zimmermann note, was illustrated anew on Sept. 8, 1917, by the giving to the world of certain telegrams that had been sent in cipher to the Berlin Foreign Office by the German Chargé d'Affaires at Buenos Aires, Argentina. As a demonstration of perfidy and heartlessness, it created an immense sensation. It was dated May 19, 1917, and read: "This Government has now released German and Austrian ships on which hitherto a guard had been placed. In consequence of the settlement of the Monte (Protegido) case there has been a great change in public feeling. Gov ernment will in future only clear Argen- I beg tine ships as far as Las Palmas. that the small steamers 'Oran' and 'Guazo,' 31st of January, 300 tons, which are now nearing Bordeaux with a view to change the flag, may be spared if possible or else sunk without a trace being left (spurlos versenkt). LUXBURG." Other despatches described the Argentine Acting Minister for Foreign Affairs as a "notorious ass and Anglophile." But it was the "spurlos versenkt" cipher, recommending the butchery if necessary of helpless crews so that their fate might never be known, that stirred the world with indignation. In Argentina the feeling was exceedingly bitter and German shops os were wrecked and newspaper offices burned. Luxburg was promptly given his passports by the Argentine Government. America was chiefly concerned, however, by the fact that the Swedish Legation at Buenos Aires had allowed itself to be used for the transmission of the This was regarded as a despatches. serious breach of neutrality. The Swedish people themselves severely criticised their Government in the matter. The Swedish Government, on Sept. 15, announced that no further messages of any sort would be forwarded for Germany from any point. The German Government on Sept. 17 expressed "keen regret" for the embarrassment that had been caused Sweden by the incident. On Dec. 7, 1917, the United States declared war on Austria-Hungary. The resolution declaring that a state of war existed between the two countries was passed in the Senate by a unanimous vote and in the House by 363 to 1, the single negative vote being cast by a New York Socialist member. The joint resolution, after declaring that the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Government had committed repeated acts of war against the Government and the people of the United States of America, followed closely in its phrasing the declaration against Germany. The action was largely formal, for it merely stated what had been actually the fact for months, and involved no special changes in our naval or military preparations. As regards internal relations, the same policy was adopted toward resident Austrian aliens and their property and ships as had previously been pursued toward Germans. The question naturally arose why why war was not declared at the same time on Turkey and Bulgaria, who were Allies of Austria and Germany. Several reasons for the omission were given semi-officially by Government spokesmen. It was stated that Turkish citizens and interests in the United States were so few as to be negligible, and that on the other hand American citizens were numerous in Turkey and had considerable business interests and property that might be endangered by a war declaration. Moreover, the staunchness of Turkey's fidelity to the cause of the Central Powers was questioned, and it was thought that she might be induced to conclude a separate peace. In Bulgaria's case it was pointed out that her interest her interest in the war was largely local, and that in defiance of Germany's command she had refused to break off diplomatic relations with this country. Whatever action the Government might take in the matter was after all academic. Germany was the real enemy, and if she were conquered, her allies would be compelled also to submit. Perhaps the most important statement of war aims in the whole course of the conflict was that made by President Wilson in a memorable address to Congress, Jan. 8, 1918. It was in this that he stated the famous "Fourteen Points" about which discussion ranged from then until and after the close of the war. They are of such historic importance that they are here subjoined in full: "The program of the world's peace, therefore, is our program, and that program, the only possible program, as we see it, is this: I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind, but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view. II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants. III. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance. IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight without the Government whith the equitable claimsed VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest co-operation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good-will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy. VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired. VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all. IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality. X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary whose place among the nations we wish to see safeand assured, should be accorded the guarded freest opportunity of autonomous development. XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated, occupied territories restored, Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea, and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality, and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into. XII. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees. XIII. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant. XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. A reply to this statement of principles, that in the view of the United States must serve as the only possible basis of peace, was made by the German Chancellor, Von Hertling, in the Reichstag on Jan. 24, 1918. The speech was evasive on many points. He flatly refused to con- He sider the cession of Alsace-Lorraine. accepted the President's views in regard to secret diplomatic agreements. The question of disarmament he agreed was discussable. He favored the freedom of the seas with the elimination of the naval bases of England at Gibraltar, Malta and other points. Belgium, he declared, was regarded by Germany as "a pawn"-an unfortunate expression that he afterward strove lamely to explain away-and the question could be settled at the Peace Conference. Other questions, he alleged, concerned Germany's allies and could only be settled after consultation with them. On behalf of Austria-Hungary, Count Czernin on the same day answered the President's speech, in an address before the Austrian Parliament. His tone was more friendly and his concessions more unreserved than those of the German Chancellor, but he went no further than his ally in definite promises, except in the case of Poland. On Feb. 11, President Wilson again addressed Congress in what was practically a reply to Von Hertling and Czernin. He declared that the method proposed by the former was that of the discredited Congress of Vienna, and that the German Chancellor in his thought was living in a world that was past and gone. Czernin, the President agreed, saw more clearly, and doubtless would have gone further yet in the way of concession, had he not been bound to silence by the interests of his allies. Once more the President sought to state in more compact form-in four points this time instead of 14-what he regarded as the fundamental conditions of durable peace. First-That each part of the final settlement must be based upon the essential justice of that particular case and upon such adjustments as are most likely to bring a peace that will be permanent. Second-That peoples and provinces are not to be bartered about from sovereignty to sovereignty as they were mere chattels and pawrs in the game, even the great game, now forever discredited, of the balances of power; but that Third-Every territorial settlement involved in this war must be made in the interest and for the benefit of the populations concerned, and not as a part of any mere adjustment or compromise of claims among rival states; and, Fourth. That all well-defined national aspirations shall be accorded the utmost satisfaction that can be accorded them without introducing new or perpetuating old elements of discord and antagonism, that would be likely in time to break the peace of Europe and consequently of the world. Whatever expectation might have been entertained that this restatement of principles would elicit a reply that would bring peace appreciably nearer, was doomed to disappointment. The iniquitous treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Russia had put that country definitely out of war, and had released vast forces that could now be used in a savage onslaught on the western front. The German war party was in the saddle, and felt that it had a chance to dictate peace instead of negotiating it. Enormous preparations were made for the great drive at the opening of the Spring campaign, that Germany confidently expected would bring a victorious end to the war, and all thought of further peace parleys was abandoned. Though the loss of American lives at this stage had not reached considerable proportions, America was feeling the economic strain caused by the necessity of having to send food and fuel to the Allies. An order was issued by Fuel Administrator Garfield on Jan. 16, 1918, providing for a series of "heatless" days in all parts of the country east of the Mississippi river from Jan. 18 to 22 inclusive and on each following Monday from Jan. 28 to March 25 inclusive. This did not apply to private dwellings, but to manufacturing plants, business offices, theaters, and the like, with certain stated exceptions. The order was criticized in some quarters as needless, but it had the endorsement of the President and was generally obeyed. The tremendous demands upon the railroads in the matter of transporting troops and supplies led to a condition of congestion and paralysis that caused the Government on Dec. 26, 1917, to assume full control of all the railroad systems in the country. This represented 260,000 miles and a property investment of $17,- 500,000,000 while 1,600,000 employes were required for operation. Steps were at once taken by the Government to unify competing lines into one general system to prevent reduplications, to supply equipment that might be lacking, and to bill all freight by the shortest and quickest routes. The control of the vast system system was vested in Secretary of the Treasury McAdoo. The property rights of stockholders were to be protected. The action was generally approved by the country as a measure imperatively necessary for the prosecution of the war. Criticism was not lacking, however, of some features of the work of the Administration. A severe attack was made on the conduct of the War Department by Senator Chamberlain, Chairman of the Military Committee of the Senate, who declared in a public speech that the military establishment had broken down and that there was inefficiency in every Government bureau and department. His Committee the next day introduced into the Senate a bill to create a Minister of Munitions and to establish a special War Cabinet of three, which should have complete charge of war operations. The charges were promptly denied by Secretary Baker, who was also warmly defended by the President. The Secretary at his own request was given an opportunity to appear before the Senate Military Committee on Jan. 28 and reply to the criticisms leveled at his department. He admitted that there had been delays, mistakes and false starts, but asserted that these were only the inevitable accompaniments of work prosecuted on such a colossal scale, and that in general the accomplishments of the Administration deserved praise rather than rebuke. He explained the delay in furnishing rifles and ordnance, and to the charges of hospital neglect, replied that in an army of over a million men only eighty complaints had been made of neglect or abuse. All defects and shortcomings, he declared, were being remedied as rapidly as possible. Whatever may have been the merits of the case, the criticism resulted in a quickening of Government effort and a thorough reorganization of the War Department. An order was issued by Secretary Baker on Feb. 10, 1918, directing the establishment of five divisions of the General Staff as follows: 1. An Executive Division under an executive assistant to the Chief of Staff. 2. A War Plans Division under a Director. 3. A Purchase and Supply Division under a Director. 4. A Storage and Traffic Division under a Director. 5. An Army Operations Division under a Director. The authority of the Chief of Staff was emphasized, and it was believed that this concentration of authority would result in greatly increased efficiency. The new organization began functioning at once, and the results speedily became apparent in the more rapid movement of troops and supplies to France. A serious disaster to the naval arm of the service occurred Feb. 5, 1918, when the British steamship, "Tuscania," " which was engaged as a transport in carrying United States troops to France, was torpedoed by a German submarine. The attack took place off the north coast of Ireland. There were 2,179 American soldiers on board, and of these nearly two hundred lost their lives. The vital problem of financing the war for ourselves and in large part for our Allies continued to be met by the issue of loans. The second Liberty Loan closed on Oct. 27, 1917, and amounted to $4,- 617,532,300. As the amount asked for was three billions, this represented an oversubscription of 54 per cent. The total of subscribers was 9,400,000. This number of buyers, vast as it was, was exceeded by those for the third loan which closed on May 4, 1918, with a subscription of over four billions, a billion more than was requested. On this occasion the buyers exceeded 17,000,000. The results were exceedingly gratifying, not only because of the amounts secured, but because of the popular determination to win the war evinced by the widespread distribution of the loan. The treaties of Germany with dispirited Russia at Brest-Litovsk and with vanquished Rumania at Bucharest had revealed anew the cynicism of the German Government, and the threat that was held out to all the free peoples of the world, if the war should result in final German triumph. President Wilson, in an address on the treaties delivered at Baltimore, April 6, 1918, reviewed the events that led up to and followed them, and gave utterance to the "Force to the utmost" phrase which stirred the nation like a clarion call. "Germany has once more said that force and force alone shall decide whether justice and peace shall re reign in the affairs of men, whether right as America conceives it or dominion as she conceives it shall determine the destinies of mankind. There is therefore but one response possible for us: Force, force to the utmost, force without stint or limit, the righteous and triumphant force which shall make right the law of the world and cast every selfish dominion down in the dust." The real baptism of fire for the American troops in France was now beginning. Hitherto there had been scattered and comparatively small actions, which had, however, demonstrated American pluck and mettle. American army engineers working on the British railways near Gouzeaucourt, on Nov. 30, 1917, had been caught in the swirl of an unexpected German attack. They had dropped their picks and shovels, grasped rifles wherever they could find them, and fought side by side with the British repelling the assault. The French communiqué rendered "warm praise to the coolness, courage and discipline of these improvised combatants." The first action of note, although still only a minor operation, in which Americans took part was the affair at Seicheprey in the Toul sector, April 20, 1918. A force of Germans numbering about 1,500, of whom a considerable portion were shock troops, launched itself against the American trenches on a onemile front. The attack had been preceded by a heavy bombardment. Gas as well as shells were used. The force of the attack carried the Germans into the first line of defense and the village of Seicheprey. There was fierce hand to hand fighting, but that same day the Americans regained most of the captured ground and the following morning completed the work and re-established their lines. Our losses were between 200 and 300 while the enemy's losses were much heavier. Ten days later the Americans were called upon to repel another heavy assault at Villers-Bretonneux. After a heavy bombardment at 5 o'clock in the afternoon, a wave of the enemy swept forward, but was repelled after intense hand to hand fighting and retreated, leaving their dead and wounded behind them. Nor should the courage be overlooked of about three hundred engineers who "held the gap" with Carey. It was just after the beginning of the great German drive that began on March 21, swept everything before it for the first ays, and threatened an overfew days, whelming disaster to the Allied arms. The road to Amiens lay open through a breach that had opened up between the British 3d and 5th armies. Gen. Sandeman Carey was commissioned to hold the gap and he did it with a nondescript army made up of laborers, telegraph linemen and any others whom he could get together. The 300 American engineers joined in, and for days against desperate odds held the breach, until it could be closed definitely by the arrival of regular troops. In the meantime, a momentous action had been taken-so momentous in fact that in all probability it decided the fate of the war. This was the appointment of General Ferdinand Foch to be Generalissimo of the Allied armies. The Allies had been hampered throughout the conflict by the various armies representing the Entente being under the control of their own generals. This led inevitably to diversity of plan and action, as distinguished from the Germans who were a unit. No matter how greatly the need of harmony among the Allies was recognized, it was impossible to secure it in fact. The English were moved by the supreme desire to bar the way to the Channel ports. The French desired to protect Paris at any cost. Each nation had a certain reluctance to send re-enforcements to the other, for fear that their own special interests might be weakened by the action. In case of a difference in views on strategy or tactics, there was no supreme power that could decide the question. The need of unity became especially apparent a week after the beginning of the great German drive of March 21, 1918. During that week, the Germans had met with enormous successes, gaining a vast area of territory and many thousands of prisoners. It was the blackest week in the entire war for the Allied cause. There was no further hesitation. On March 28 General Pershing called upon General Foch who on that same date had been made Generalissimo, and placed at his disposal all the American troops and resources. "I came to say to you," General Pershing said, "that the American people would hold it a great honor for our troops, were they engaged in the present battle. There is at this moment no other question than that of fighting. Infantry, artillery, aviation-all that we have are yours, to dispose of as you will." The offer was accepted gratefully by the War Council and the following statement was issued: "The American troops will fight side by side with the British and French troops, and the Star-Spangled Banner will float beside the French and English flags in the plains of Picardy." By the time arrangements had been completed to utilize our troops, there were nearly 800,000 American soldiers in France, and they were coming across the seas in an apparently unending stream at the rate of 300,000 a month. about to be America's weight was thrown in the scales with decisive effect. A deft and finished piece of work was the capture of the strongly held and fortified town of Cantigny N. W. of Montdidier. On May 28 the Americans, in conjunction with French artillery and tanks, attacked on a front of one and a quarter miles. They took the town in the first forward sweep and captured 200 prisoners besides in inflicting severe losses on the enemy in killed and wounded. Repeated counter-attacks were made by the Germans in heavy force, but all were repelled. Three days later the Americans distinguished themselves at Château- Thierry, a town that later was to become forever memorable because of the luster there shed on American arms. Units of the American Marine Corps, armed with machine guns, beat back an attack by heavy German forces on the town. They repulsed the Germans and took many prisoners, losing none of their own men as prisoners. Two more were beaton determined German attacks ks back a short time later on On June 6 the a dou sion of the high ground N. W. of Château-Thierry. In a five-lour fight, they captured Bouresches and Torcy. Corcy. Far bitterer was the fight that followed for the possession of Belleau Wood, where marines and regular soldiers won imperishable fame. The wood was densely forested, was defended by artillery and machine-gun nests and was held by the crack divisions of the German army. But the Americans pressed doggedly forward, gaining ground foot by foot, and at last in a headlong charge swept the remnants of the enemy forces from the wood, capturing hundreds of prisoners, while the ground was carpeted with German dead. On July 1, at Vaux, the Americans, acting alone, captured the town in forty minutes, taking 500 prisoners. On July 4, in a great attack at Hamel, Independence Day was celebrated by the Americans in conjunction with the Australians by a victory that netted 1,500 prisoners. The resistance was determined, but the Americans advanced to the charge uttering the cry "Lusitania," and the fate of the day was decided. The greatest action of the war so far for the Americans was that of July 15, when they stopped the thrust of the German Crown Prince toward Paris. The American forces were holding Jaulgonne and Dormans on the Marne. The Germans threw 25,000 of their best troops across the river. Under the shock of the great masses hurled against them the American line at first bent, but quickly rallied and threw the enemy back across the river. The Germans lost 10,000 men in killed and captured. Had the Germans broken through on that epic occasion, they would have had excellent chances of reaching the French capital. On the following day, the Germans again attacked the American forces, only to be driven back with heavy loss. The Germans were wavering and confused. They had met with a sharp defeat, where they had confidently counted on victory. And at that critical juncture, Foch struck at them on a 28-mile front in the most magnificent counterattack of the war. Americans in this attack were brigaded with the French troops under General Mangin and played a prominent part in the great advance to the Vesle and the Ourcq that followed the initial victory. South of Soissons, they pushed the Allied line farthest ahead. They took Fère-en- Tardenois in conjunction with the French. At Sergy, they drove the Germans beyond the Ourcq. On Aug. 1, after fighting of the severest kind, they stormed and captured Meunières Wood. At the Vesle American engineers, under fierce artillery fire, threw bridges over the stream, over which their comrades swarmed with a determination that would not be denied. In those weeks of continuous and bloody fighting the Americans were always at the front, and were everywhere victorious. On Aug. 7, General Mangin issued the following order of the day: Officers, Non-Commissioned Officers, and Soldiers of the American army: Shoulder to shoulder with your French comrades, you threw yourselves into the counter-offensive begun July 18. You ran to it as if going to a feast. Your magnificent dash upset and surprised the enemy, and your indomitable tenacity stopped counter-attacks by his fresh divisions. You have shown yourselves to be worthy sons of your great country, and have gained the admiration of your brothers in arms. Ninety-one cannon, 7,200 prisoners, immense booty and ten kilometers of reconquered territory are your share of the trophies of this victory. Besides this, you have acquired a feeling of your superiority over the barbarian enemy against whom the children of liberty are fighting. To attack him is to vanquish him. American comrades, I am grateful to you for the blood you generously spilled on the soil of my country. I am proud of having commanded you during such splendid days, and to have fought with you for the deliverance of the world. In the operations following this great victory the American force took a brilliant part in smashing the Hindenburg line. Their steady drive against the Crown Prince's army compelled its retreat on a twenty-mile line on Sept. 4, At the battle of Juvigny, Aug. 29, the Americans captured Juvigny plateau, one division conquering four of the best of the German divisions. In the meantime, a great American attack was being prepared in the Lorraine sector entirely under the direction of General Pershing and his assistants. The plan and strategy were American throughout, as were the bulk of the forces employed, although some French troops co-operated under Pershing's command. The St. Mihiel salient was a wedge that had been driven by the Germans into French territory in the vicinity of the village of that name, and had been held in force by them since the first invasion in 1914. It effectually prevented an Allied offensive in the direction of Metz. During four years the French had not been able to reduce it. The Americans undertook the task and for weeks the most careful and intensive campaign was prepared. More than 100,000 detail maps were issued showing the character of the terrain and the posts held by the enemy. 40,000 photowere distributed among the graphs Five thousand miles officers and men. of wire were laid and 6,000 telephone instruments were connected with the wiros. Nothing was left to chance, the result being one of the most signal and overwhelming victories of the war. The position of the American army just preceding the battle is thus officially stated by General Pershing: From Les Eparges around the nose of the salient at St. Mihiel to the Moselle river the line was, roughly, forty miles on commanding long and situated ground greatly strengthened by artificial defenses. Our 1st Corps (82d, 90th, 5th, and 2d Divisions), under command of Major-General Hunter Liggett, resting its right on Pont-à-Mousson, with its left joining our 3d Corps (the 89th, 42d, and 1st Divisions), under Major- General Joseph T. Dickman, in line to Xivray, was to swing toward Vigneulles on the pivot of the Moselle river for the initial assault. From Xivray to Mouilly the 2d Colonial French Corps was in line in the center, and our 5th Corps, command of Major-General under George H. Cameron, with our 26th Division and a French division at the western base of the salient, was to attack three difficult hills-Les Eparges, Combres, and Amaranthe. Our 1st Corps had in reserve the 78th Division, our 4th Corps the 3d Division, and our First Army the 35th and 91st Divisions, with the 80th and 33d available. It should be understood that our corps organizations are very elastic, and that we have at no time had permanent assignments of divisions to corps. On Sept. 12, 1918, the assault was begun, and resulted in a sweeping victory. The tanks in advance broke down the enemy entanglements, and a tremendous artillery fire prepared the way for the dash of the infantry. The attack began at dawn, and within 27 hours after the beginning of the offensive, the Americans had recaptured 155 square miles of territory and had taken 433 guns and 16,000 prisoners, together with vast stores of munitions and supplies. The remainder of the enemy, numbering about 100,000, fled in hasty retreat. The victory freed Verdun from the menace of the German threat against its flank, put the dominating heights of the Meuse in American hands and cleared the way for an advance toward the Briey basin and the fortress of Metz. While our soldiers abroad were thus demonstrating that as fighting men they had no superiors in the world, renewed endeavors had been made in this country to augment the size of American armies. A new draft law was enacted by Congress and signed by the President on Aug. 31, 1918, extending the American draft ages to all males between 18 and 45 inclusive. The number of men estimated to be affected by this law was about 13,000,000. The day of registration was set as Sept. 12, which by a coincidence chanced to be the date of the victory of St. Mihiel. It was believed that about 2,300,000 men could be observice under this tained for military ry registration. This would make it possible for America's total army in the field to be brought to 5,000,000 men, of whom it was believed that eighty divisions aggregating 4,000,000 could be in France by June 30, 1919. This would leave 18 divisions to be trained and held in readiness at home. It was a colossal program, and would doubtless have been carried out, had not the collapse of the Central Powers made it unnecessary. The work of the American army at St. Mihiel was equalled by the operations of other units that were brigaded with the Allies. The 27th and 30th Divisions were brigaded with the British troops and fought in company with the Australians in the brilliant series of attacks that smashed the Hindenburg line in the vicinity of the St. Quentin canal, Sept. 29- Oct. 1. They reached all their objectives, despite the most bitter artillery and machine-gun resistance. In less than two weeks they had overrun the enemy's lines to a depth of thirteen miles and had captured 6,000 prisoners. Their casualties were heavy, but did not compare with those inflicted upon the enemy. Two other divisions, the 2d and 36th, aided the French in driving the Germans from positions they had held for four years in the Rheims sector. In the week Oct. 2-9, they stormed and held the formidable position of Blanc Mount, and later captured the town of Ste. Etienne in bloody fighting. A little later, the 37th and 91st Divisions, which had been sent in haste to re-enforce the French troops operating in Belgium, took part in a brilliant advance that on Oct. 31 and Nov. 3 crushed the enemy's resistance, and drove his troops across the Escaut river, the American forces reaching the town of Audenarde. In Italy also American troops did gallant work in the last great Italian drive against Austria. While these decisive operations were proceeding on the western front, United States troops were taking part also in military activities in Russia and Siberia. Russia had by this time not only withdrawn its help from the Allies, but under Bolshevist domination had adopted an attitude of sullen if not active hostility. Vast quantities of American stores that had accumulaed at Vladivostok were imperiled, and it was determined that troops should be sent to protect them. This was the ostensible reason for the sending of the expedition, but there was another reason of much greater importance, based on political and n military considerations. There was still a possibility that Russia might overthrow the hostile Bolshevist régime and establish a government that would once more range itself on the side of the Entente and rebuild the collapsed Russian front. Certain facts lent plausibility to this belief. A powerful body of Russian opinion was anxious to overturn the Lenine- Trotzky régime and form a constitutional government. In addition the Czecho- Slovaks had won decided military victories over the Bolshevist forces, and had revived hopes that that Government might be overthrown. The Czecho-Slovaks were prisoners who had been taken by the Russians in the early part of the war. They had been forced into the Austrian army, but they preferred captivity among the Russians to fighting under the hated flag of the Hapsburg monarchy. After the Russian debacle, these prisoners possessed themselves of arms, and fought their way across Russia and part of Siberia, with the intention of reaching Vladivostok and thence finding their way to the western front, to fight there in conjunction with the Allies (see CZECHO-SLAVIA). They offered the nucleus of an army that might by Allied reenforcements be made formidable, and therefore the Entente, in co-operation with America, decided to intervene. Early in August, 1918, American forces, under General William S. Graves and numbering about 10,000 men, arrived in Vladivostok. Japanese troops were sent about the same time, together with small British and French contingents. Even earlier than this, on July 15, a comparatively small detachment of Americans had landed with Allied troops at Murmansk, in the north of Russia. Desultory fighting, in no case rising above the dignity of outpost actions, followed the arrival of the troops. The story of the intervention is told elsewhere in detail (See RuSSIA IN THE WORLD WAR). It is sufficient here to say that the expeditions had no practical results. The forces at Archangel were withdrawn in 1919 and those at Vladivostok in 1920. It was simply a military adventure that had no practical bearing on the fortunes of war. The logic of events had decreed that the issue should be settled on the western front, and the Russian situation had ceased to be a factor in the struggle. The total casualties of the Americans in Siberia were 105; on the Archangel front 553. The greatest battles in which the Americans were engaged were those of the Meuse-Argonne, in the the fall of 1918. This epic struggle with its victorious outcome will ever be a glorious page in American history. The Argonne forest was the most formidable position that any troops had been called on to take in the entire course of the war. So formidable was it that Napoleon himself had refused to attack the enemy there, deeming the forest impregnable. It was densely wooded, and in places almost impenetrable. To these natural obstacles the Germans had brought all the aids known to military science. Thousands of miles of wire were stretched from bush to bush and tree to tree. Every foot of ground had been ranged for their heavy artillery. Machine-gun nests by the thousands were hidden in shell holes and behind rocks and tree trunks. Even many of the Allied commanders doubted if success were possible. The Americans, however, undertook the task, and carried it through to a successful conclusion. On Sept. 26, after intensive artillery fire that cut lanes through some of the wire entanglements, the American troops launched a vigorous attack that on the first day mastered the first line defenses. In the next two days, fighting against terrific resistance, they penetrated to a depth varying from three to seven miles, captured a dozen towns and took 10,000 prisoners. In successive days they improved their position and continued their advance in the face of almost insuperable obstacles. In the words of General Pershing in reporting the battle, the American troops "should have been unable to accomplish any progress, according to previously accepted standards, but I had every confidence in our aggressive tactics and the courage of our troops." By the middle of October, the important town of Grandprè had been taken and the forest practically cleared. After this, the fighting was easier, though much stiff battling remained to be done before the Americans reached their goal. The enemy's morale had weakened before the irresistible onslaught and the successive defeats inflicted on them. Huge naval guns had been brought up by the Americans-guns capable of carrying a half-ton projectile almost twenty miles and with these a bombardment was begun that cut the Mézières-Sedan railway line, the chief German artery of supplies for their army. By the 6th of November, the Americans had reached a point on the Meuse opposite Sedan. From that moment the German cause was doomed. The enemy's line of communications had been cut, and only an armistice or abject surrender remained. In this gigantic offensive, the Americans had captured 468 guns and 26,059 prisoners. Taking no more time than to give his soldiers a breathing spell the American commander was preparing an advance toward Longwy and the Briey coal fields and had already commenced the attack on the morning of Nov. 11 when the order came to suspend hostilities at 11 A. M. The armistice had been signed and the greatest war in history came to an end. The series of disasters to German arms and the impending collapse of their allies were reflected in the changed tone of German statesmen at the beginning of autumn. Hindenburg, the military idol of the German people, issued a manifesto acknowledged the on Sept. 6, in which he a which he severity of the struggle and exhorted the army to be on its guard against enemy propaganda. The Kaiser, speaking to the municipality of Munich, a day earlier, had admitted the difficulty of the present struggle against an enemy "filled with jealousy, destruction and the will to conquer." A week later, his agitation and apprehension were clearly marked in a halting address that he made to the workmen at Essen. The German Crown Prince supplemented his father's efforts by declaring that Germany had never wanted war and was fighting simply for her existence, ringed in as she was by a circle of foes. Von Hertling, Burian, and Czernin, in the same month, made addresses that were palpable alpable bids for peace. There was no longer any arrogant talk about annexations and indemnities. Panic fear was beginning to spread among the statesmen of the Central Powers as they read the "handwriting on the wall." The first open peace proposal was made in a communication by the Austro-Hungarian Government to the governments of all neutral and belligerent powers, dated Sept. 15. While the note ostensibly came from Austria alone, it developed later that it had received the approval of Germany. The note was carefully worded, was devoid of bitterness or arrogance, and asked that a confidential and "non-binding" discussion be entered into, that might clear away misunderstandings and pave the way to peace. But the note came too late. It was regarded on all sides as an attempt to escape an impending military defeat by causing a slackening of effort on the part of the Allies while the retreating armies of the Central Powers should have a chance to regain their poise and vanishing morale. The offer was met with rejection by all the Entente nations. The refusal of our own Government was despatched on the same day that the note was received. The President stated that the note required no extended answer for "the Government has repeatedly and with entire candor stated the terms on which the United States would consider peace, and can and will entertain no proposal for a conference upon a matter concerning which it has made its position and purpose so plain." Answers of a similar tenor, though in some cases more extended, were made by the members of the Entente, and the overture came to naught. Its receipt, however, was probably the moving cause of a notable address made by the President in the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, on Sept. 27, 1918. In this the President set forth what he called a "practical program" the salient points of which were as follows: First. The impartial justice meted out must involve no discrimination between those to whom we wish to be just and those to whom we do not wish to be just. It must be a justice that plays no favorites and knows no standard but the equal rights of the several peoples concerned; Second. No separate or special interest of any single nation or any group of nations can be made the basis of any part of the settlement which is not consistent with the common interest of all; Third. There can be no league or alliances or special covenants and understandings within the general and common family of the League of Nations; Fourth. And more specifically, there can be no special selfish economic combinations within the league and no employment of any form of economic boycott or exclusion, except as the power of economic penalty by exclusion from the markets of the world may be vested in the League of Nations itself as a means of discipline and control; Fifth. All international agreements and treaties of every kind must be made known in their entirety to the rest of the world. This program was promptly seized upon by Austria as the basis of a new appeal which was made on Oct. 7, not to all all belligerents this time, but to the President alone. It offered to conclude an immediate armistice on the basis of the fourteen points enunciated in the Presi dent's address to Congress on Jan. 8, the four points emphasized in his Feb. 1 speech and the program stated in the address in New York, Sept. 27. The substance of these three notable utterances have been given in the preceding pages. This proposition was again refused. Events in the interim between the setting forth of these several points of view had changed the situation so that one at least of the fourteen points was no longer applicable. This was the tenth point, which had demanded the fullest possible autonomy for the peoples of Austria-Hungary. But by this time the independence, not autonomy alone, of Czecho-Slovakia had been recognized. Jugoslavia's claim also to a separate national existence had been approved by this Government. One more attempt was made by Austria, now frantic and distracted, to secure terms. She willingly admitted the right of Czecho-Slovakia and Jugoslavia to independence and urged that immediate negotiations be initiated. She asked further that this might be done, irrespective of any correspondence that might be proceeding with any other power, the reference of course being to Germany. By this time the fate of Austria had been sealed by the arbitrament of arms on the Italian front. There was no need of further correspondence with the doomed nation. Her note was transmitted to the Inter-Allied Conference at Versailles, and Austria was instructed to deal directly with the commander of the Italian forces. Much more important than the Austrian peace overtures were those begun by Germany. That empire had at last abandoned all hope hope of of milita military success. Her Macedonian front had crumbled, by the Kaiser's own admission; Turkey was threatened with absolute overthrow by the whirlwind campaign of Allenby; Austria-Hungary alone of all her allies was left, and could not maintain her own line, let alone render help to the hardpressed German forces. The end was at hand, and it only remained for Germany to save as much as she could from the wreck of her military fortunes, On Sept. 12, Vice-Chancellor von Payer had expressed the willingness of his Government to give back Belgium. Two days following the delivery of President Wilson's address of Sept. 27, the German Government began to s set its official house in order, so that it might more fully conform to the President's views on popular government. The more conservative and war-insistent members of the Government were dismissed, and men of a more liberal character took their places. Changes were also made in the direction of ballot reform, looking for a more general participation by the people in the Government. The Constitution itself was changed, and the Cabinet Ministers were given the right to demand to be heard by by the Reichstag. But the greatest change was made in the Chancellorship. Von Hertling, who was supposed to be persona non grata to the Allies because of his previous committals on questions connected with the war, was replaced on Oct. 2 by Prince Maximilian of Baden, who had no antagonisms to overcome and who was reputed to be of Liberal tendencies. The first act of the new Chancellor after assuming office was to send to President Wilson through the Swiss Government as intermediary the following note: The German Government requests the President of the United States to take in hand the restoration of peace, acquaint all the belligerent states with this request and invite them to send plenipotentiaries for the purpose of opening negotiations. It accepts the program set forth by the President of the United States in hiş message to Congress on January 8, and in his later pronouncements, especially his speech of Sept. 27, as a basis for peace negotiations. With a view to avoiding further bloodshed, the German Government requests the immediate conclusion of an armistice on land and water and in the air. On the same day, the Chancellor outlined in a speech to the Reichstag the changes that had been made in the German administration and constitution. This was done evidently to convince the American Government that in any dealings it might henceforth have with Germany it would be dealing with a government of the German people, instead of a militaristic clique. The speech hinted also that Germany might be willing to pay an indemnity, and promised the complete restoration and rehabilitation of Belgium. The reply of the President was despatched Oct 8. It neither accepted nor rejected the German offer, but rather deferred a positive statement pending the receipt of further information. The President declared that he would not feel at liberty to propose a cessation of arms to his associate powers until their soil had been evacuated by the German armies. He asked also whether the German note meant that the German Government actually actually accepted the terms had set forth in his that the President Jan. 8 address, and whether its object in entering into discussions would be only to agree upon the practical application of those terms. Furthermore, the Presthe Chanident wanted to know whether cellor was speaking merely as the mouthauthorities of piece of the constituted the empire who had hitherto conducted questions the war. The answer to these the President declared was vital. The answer of the German Governdated ment was quick in coming. It was of Dr. Oct. 12, and bore the signature , but Solf, the former Colonial Secretary Imperial for the preceding six days the accepted Foreign Secretary. The note address of unequivocally the President's as Jan. 8 and his subsequent utterances out the the bases of peace. It pointed changes that had been made in the German Government to bring it closer to the masses, and declared that the Chancellor Governspoke in the name of the German to ment and the German people. As to evacuation, readiness was expressed that agree to this, and it was proposed a mixed commission be appointed to consider the details. In the interval between the receipt of the first and second note, Germany, with , in view an almost unbelievable blindness for peace of the fact that she was suing conciliating and that her interests lay in her enemies rather than exasperating , during had committed fresh atrocities and had her retreat through Belgium neutral nations horrified the Allied and by a submarine sinking resembling some- "Lusitania." what the tragedy of the steamer "Leinster" The British mail had been torpedoed during a storm in gone the Irish Sea on Oct. 10 and had loss of down in fifteen minutes with a 480 lives, of which 135 were those of women and children. These devastations and massacres strongly influenced the wording and reply tenor of the President's second . matter of arrang- After stating that the ing the process of evacuation and conbe left to ditions of an armistice must advisers of the judgment of the military Governthe United States and the Allied must ments, and emphasizing that there safeguards be absolutely satisfactory maintenance of and guarantees of the of the the "present military supremacy and the armies of the United States Allies in the field," he gave a solemn warning that no proposition for an armistice would be considered as long as Germany persisted in her illegal and inhuman practices. "At the very time that the German Government approaches the Government proposals of of the United States with in sinking peace, its submarines engaged the ships passenger ships at sea, and not in which the alone, but the very boats their passengers and crews seek to make way to safety, and in their present en- Flanders and forced withdrawal from France, the German armies are pursuing , which a course of wanton destruction in direct has always been regarded as violation of the rules and practices of villages, if civilized warfare. Cities and of what not destroyed, are being stripped of their they contained not only, but often associated very inhabitants. The nations expected to against Germany cannot be while acts agree to a cessation of arms, and desolaof inhumanity, spoliation they tion are being continued, which and with justly look upon with horror burning hearts." The President also directed the attention of the German Government to in his address a sentence that occurred at Mt. Vernon on the preceding July 4, in which as a term of peace was declared every necessary, "the destruction of that can arbitrary power everywhere single separately, secretly and of its of the world; or, choice disturb the peace at if it cannot be presently destroyed, . least its reduction to virtual impotency " , was the This, the President declared hitherto conkind of power that had within trolled the German people. It was people to alter the power of the German securing it, and the whole possibility of done. peace rested upon this being The answer was thoroughly gratifying had been some to this nation. There dissatisfaction with the first reply, but the heartiest this second one received The indorsement from all quarters. Allied nations also gave it their warmest approval. Germany's third note was dated Oct. country on 20, and was received in this charges of the 22d. It denied the if severities atrocities, or declared that to military had occurred, they were due the form of necessity. It reiterated that had radically the German Government put forth changed, and that the proposals of an were supported by the approval the German overwhelming majority of armistice, it people. As regards the standard of suggested that the "actual the field was power" on both sides in safeto form the basis for arrangements standard guarding and guaranteeing that . to this third The President's reply it was ofnote was sent the day after his willficially received. He declared ingness to submit the proposal for an powers, but armistice to the associated warned Germany, that the only condiin recomtions he would feel justified make mending would be such as would on the part of the renewal of hostilities , the Germany impossible. If, moreover were changes in the German Government the United only nominal, not real, and if States must deal with the military masters of Germany now, or if it is likely to have to deal with them later, "it must demand not peace negotiations but surrender." The reply received prolonged consideration by the German authorities. By that time the military situation was so hopeless that nothing remained but submission. Ludendorff resigned his command on the 26th. On the 27th, a message to President Wilson, virtually accepted the terms by declaring that it awaited the receipt of the armistice proposition from the allied military staffs. The ultimate compliance of Germany had been counted upon as absolutely foreshadowed by the progress of events, and terms had been drawn up while the correspondence was being interchanged. On Nov. 5, Secretary Lansing announced to the German Government that peace would be made on the terms prescribed in his public utterances by President Wilson. An important important ant reservation was made, however, namely that liberty of action was reserved on the clause relating to the freedom of the seas, since it was liable to differing interpretations. It was also demanded that compensation be made by Germany "for all damage to the civilian population of the Allies by land, by sea, and from the air." The note closed with the statement that Marshal Foch had been authorized to receive the German delegates and acquaint them with the terms of armistice the Allied and Associated Powers were prepared to grant. The Germans promptly requested the Marshal to appoint a time and place of meeting. The time was set as Nov. 7, and the place was the railroad car of Marshal Foch in the forest of Compiègne. The delegates proceeded there under a white flag. They were met at the French lines by guards, who conducted them to the place of meeting. There the armistice terms were read by the Generalissimo of the Allied armies. Their alleged severity aroused protests from the Germans, who were informed, however, that the Marshal's power to change them extended only to minor details. On Nov. 11, the German delegates affixed their signatures to the armistice terms, and the war was over. It is true that the treaty of peace remained to be signed, and this was not done until June 28, 1919, five years to a day from the date in 1914 when the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand, at Sarajevo, had furnished the pretext for the World War. But the actual cessation of hostilities dates from Nov. 11, 1918. The terms of the armistice were such as to make it impossible for Germany to resume the war, even if she were so inclined. Those terms were drastic, but in the general judgment of the Allied world did not go beyond what justice and security from future aggression required. In America, as in other Allied nations, the news that the armistice had been signed was received with joyful popular demonstrations. The relief from the strain of war was unspeakable, and with this was mingled pride at the part that America had played in bringing the war to a successful conclusion. The terms of the armistice provided that three bridgeheads on the Rhine should be occupied by Allied forces. The Coblenz bridgehead was the one assigned to the American Army of Occupation. The march was begun almost at once, and on Dec. 12 the army reached Coblenz, their forces crossing the Rhine the following morning to occupy the bridgehead. Military administration was inaugurated at once, though the municipal authorities were allowed to function, under American supervision and control. The occupation continued until the signing of the Peace treaty, after which the American troops were gradually withdrawn and sent home, the places of some of them being taken by new units sent from America. In May, 1920, there remained about 13,000 American troops at the bridgehead under the command of Major-General Henry T. Allen. In the main, the occupation, beyond a little occasional friction, was marked by few untoward incidents, and order was well maintained. The cessation of hostilities made it possible for the American people to become acquainted with the real extent of American participation in the conflict by various arms of the service. Previous to that time, many of the operations had been recorded in fragmentary form, or had been hidden under the veil of secrecy required by the censorship. The work of the land forces had been fairly well followed, but that of the navy and the air services had not been gauged at their full value. An official report of Secretary of the Navy Daniels, issued Dec. 3, 1918, gave interesting details of the navy's achievements. On the day that war was declared the navy numbered 65,777 men. At the signing of the armistice, it had increased to 497,030. The ships in commission had increased in the same period from 197 to 2,003. Less than a month after war was declared, a division of United States destroyers was in European waters. By October, 1918, there were 338 ships of all classes serving abroad. Up to Nov. 1, 1918, of the total number of American troops in Europe, 924,578 had been carried over in United States naval convoys, escorted by American cruisers and detroyers. Not one eastbound American transport was torpedoed or damaged by enemy submarines, and only three were sunk on the return voyage. In 10 months, the transportation service grew from 10 ships to a fleet of 321 cargo carrying vessels, with a dead-weight tonnage of 2,800,000. A mine barrage had been laid in the North Sea for which 85,000 mines had been shipped abroad. The work of the destroyers in curbing the submarine menace was declared by the Secretary to have been without a precedent in Allied warfare and had received the most enthusiastic commendation of the Allied naval authorities. The work of the marines in the fighting at Château-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and many other battle fields has already been described in the foregoing pages. Statistics of the main accomplishments of America in the two years between April 6, 1917, when war was declared, and April 6, 1919, are here subjoined: April 6, 1917: Regular Army... 127,588 National Guard in Federal Service. 80,466 ☐ Reserve Corps in service. Total of soldiers. Personnel of Navy. Marine Corps. Total armed forces. Nov. 11, 1918: 3,764,000 Army Navy. 497,030 Marine Corps 78,017 Total armed forces. 4,339,047 2,053,347 Soldiers transported overseas... American troops in action, Nov. 11, 1918.. 1,338,169 Soldiers in camps in the United 1,700,000 States, Nov. 11, 1918.. Casualties, Army and Marine Corps, Á. E. F.... 282,311 Death rate per thousand, A. E. F. .057 44,000 German prisoners taken... Americans decorated by British, French, Belgian, and Italian Armies, about. 10,000 Number of men registered and classified under selective service law.. 23,700,000 Gas masks, extra canisters and 8,500,000 horse masks... NAVY AND MERCHANT SHIPPING Warships at beginning of war.. 197 Warships at end of war.. 2,003 Small boats built.. 800 Submarine chasers built. 355 Merchant ships armed. 2,500 Naval bases in European waters and the Azores.. 54 Shipbuilding yards (merchant marine) increased from 61 to more than 200. Cost of 32 National Army cantonments and National Guard $ 179,629,497 camps .. Students enrolled in 500 S. A. 170,000 T. C. camps... Officers commissioned from training camps (exclusive of universities, etc.)... 80,000 Women engaged in Government war industries.. 2,000,000 BEHIND THE BATTLE LINES Railway locomotives sent to 967 France Freight cars sent to France. 13,174 Locomotives of foreign origin operated by A. E. F... 350 Cars of foreign origin operated by A. E. F... 973 Miles of standard gauge track laid in France 843 Warehouses, approximate area 23,000,000 in square feet. Motor vehicles shipped to France 110,000 ARMS AND AMMUNITION Persons employed in about 8,000 ordnance plants in the United States at signing of armistice. 4,000,000 Shoulder rifles made during war 2,500,000 Rounds of small arms ammuni- 2,879,148,000 tion. Machine guns and automatic rifles 181,662 High explosive shells.. 4,250,000 Gas shells.. 500,000 Shrapnel... 7,250,000 Shipbuilding ways increased from 235 to more than 1,000. Ships delivered to Shipping Board by end of 1918.. 592 Deadweight tonnage of ships de- 3,423,495 livered FINANCES OF THE WAR 4,000 Total cost, approximately $24,620,000,000 8,841,657,000 Credits to 11 nations.. 3,694,000,000 212,034 Raised by taxation in 1918. 65,777 Raised by Liberty Loans. 14,000,000,000 15,627 War Savings Stamps to November, 1918.. 834,253,000 293,438 War relief gifts, estimated..... ...... 4,000,000,000 Political Happenings During and After the World War. Congress passed, in 1915, another immigration bill with a literacy test. This was vetoed by the President. The Supreme Court, in June, 1915, decided against the Government in the dissolution suit against the steel trust and declared that the " grandfather clauses " of the Oklahoma and Maryland constitutions were void. The United States in September, 1915, undertook the supervision of the revenues of Haiti. A conference was called in October of that year of South American diplomats to consider the Mexican question. It was decided that Carranza should be recognized, and, on October 19, President Wilson recognized Carranza as heading the de facto Government of Mexico. In February, 1916, as a result of the failure to agree with the President's policy on national defense, Lindley M. Garrison, Secretary of of War, resigned, and was succeeded by Newton D. Baker of Ohio. In January, 1915, Francisco Villa, the most powerful of the Mexican revolutionary leaders, killed several American miners and on March 9, with 500 followers, invaded the town of Columbus, New Mexico, killing seven troopers and several citizens, destroying much property. He was pursued across the border by United States troops and on the following day the President authorized a punitive expedition to pursue and capture him. An agreement was made with President Carranza permitting this force to cross the border. General Pershing pursued Villa in the mountain regions of Chihuahua. Several Engagements were fought with the Mexicans. At Parral, American soldiers were attacked by natives and General Carranza demanded that the expedition be recalled. This was refused by President Wilson on the ground that the Mexican Government was not able to keep peace along the border. In spite of the protest of the Mexican authorities, the United States forces remained in Mexico, although Villa was not captured. The State Militia was called to protect the border. On July 15, after an exchange of notes, the matter was settled temporarily by a joint commission. There were indications early in 1916 of a reunion between the Republican and Progressive parties, and this was verified by the announcement that their conventions would meet at the same time in the same city. A committee of prominent men of both parties was appointed to reach a common ground of agreement on both candidates and platform. At the convention, Charles E. Hughes, of New York, was nominated without serious opposition. Charles W. Fairbanks, of Indiana, was nominated for vice-president. At the Democratic convention held in St. Louis, in the early part of July, President Wilson was renominated by acclamation and Thomas R. Marshall was again nominated for vice-president. An element of the Progressive party for president, nominated Mr. Roosevelt for president, but as he declined the nomination, the National Committee of the party indorsed Justice Hughes. The campaign was bitterly fought. Colonel Roosevelt took an active part in the support of Justice Hughes, and attacked the President's policies in regard to the war and Mexico in unsparing terms. The election in November proved one of the closest in the history of the United States. The first returns made it evident that Hughes had carried all the industrial and commercial States of the North and East, with the exception of Ohio. On the day following the election, it was announced that Mr. Hughes had been elected. Later in the day, however, gains from the West indicated the possibility of the re-election of the President. Many States which had been regarded as safely Republican, went Democratic. The turning point, however, was California. After a few days of suspense during the counting of the votes, the electoral vote of the State was announced for Wilson, and it was sufficient to re-elect him. The electoral vote stood 277 for Wilson and 254 for Hughes. The President's popular vote showed a gain of 2,000,000 over that of 1912, in spite of the fact that the Republicans gained in the House of Re Representatives and elected many of their State candidates. The legislation of 1917 was devoted chiefly to the successful conduct of the war. The measures passed, included those providing for the Emergency Fleet Corporation, food control, Federal regulation of coal, Trading with the Enemy Act, and like measures. On Oct. 24, 1918, President Wilson issued an appeal to the people of the United States to return a Democratic Congress in the coming fall election, declaring that the election of a Republican Congress would be taken abroad by Germany and the Allies alike as a repudiation of his leadership of policies. The Republicans publicans resented this appeal, and the result of the election was a defeat for the administration. The Republicans secured a substantial majority in the House of Representatives and in the Senate by a close margin. On the conclusion of the war, the nation quickly returned to a peace basis, and preparations were at once begun for the return of American soldiers. The first shipload of these arrived on Dec. 2, 1918, and they were followed by an ever increasing procession of vessels from Europe to the United States, bearing home the members of the American Expedition. It was announced on Nov. 18, 1918, that the President would personally attend the Peace Conference in Paris, The President, in his message, explained that as the Allies and Germany had made his speeches the basis of their negotiations, it was due to the American people, no less than to the Entente nations, that he should be in close touch with the deliberations. Accordingly, he embarked on Dec. 4, 1918, for France, accompanied by the American delegates, with a large group of experts. The peace delegates named by the President were Robert Lansing, Secretary of State; Henry White, formerly Ambassador to France; Edward M. House; and Tasker Bliss. The President was received with the greatest warmth in Paris, as well as in Great Britain and Italy, which he visited previous to the formal meetings of the Conference. The chief concern of President Wilson at the Peace Conference was avowedly the preparation of the covenant of the League of Nations, and to this object he devoted his chief efforts. The draft of the covenant was cabled to the United States, prior to the return of the President for a brief visit. He arrived in Boston on February 24. Opposition to used the covenant had already developed, chiefly from a group of Republican Senators, who asserted that it violated the sovereignty of the United States and repudiated the Monroe Doctrine. The chief article singled out for attack was Article 10, which pledged the United States "to preserve, as against external aggressions, the territorial integrity of all the States in the League." President Wilson returned to Paris early in March, after having delivered several speeches in support of the Treaty of the Covenant. On the signing of the Treaty on June 28, 1919, the President at once embarked for the United States, arriving on July 9. On July 1, 1919, the prohibition n of the sale of intoxicating liquors went into effect in the United States, as a result of the ratification of the 19th amendment to the Constitution by three-fourths of the States. By the terms of the provisions, ns, however, the amendment was not effective until January, 1920. The Peace Treaty was considered by the Committee on Foreign Relations in the Senate, and on the report of the committee on September 28, it was found to contain 38 amendments and four reservations. The amendments were rejected and the chief interest centered upon the reservations. These, in the main, covered the same ground as the amendments. The first provided that the United States should have the right to withdraw from the League of Nations "upon a notice provided in Article I of said Treaty of Peace with Germany." The second reservation absolved the United States from any obligation in Article 10 "to preserve the territorial integrity or political independence of any other country." The third reservation provided that the United States should have a right to decide what questions were within its domestic jurisdiction. In the fourth reservation, the United States declined to submit for arbitration or inquiry any questions depending on, or related to, the Monroe Doctrine." These reservations were debated in the Senate. The Treaty was defeated with the reservations, by a vote of 55 to 39, and without the reservations, by a vote of 55 to 38. No further consideration of the Treaty was given during the remainder of this session of Congress. On April 30, Senator Knox introduced a resolution providing for a declaration of peace with Germany. This resolution was adopted by both the House and the Senate on May 27, 1920, but was vetoed by the President. Cyc Congress passed a comprehensive bill for the conduct and regulation of railroads. (See RAILWAYS.) Various measures were taken during December, 1919, and the following months for the suppression of anarchistic and communistic propaganda in the United States. Raids were made upon the headquarters of radical societies throughout the country, and many of the leaders were taken for the purpose of deportation. In December, about 300 anarchists, the most conspicuous of whom were Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman, were deported to Russia. Affairs in Mexico gave rise to an exchange of notes between that country and the United States, during the latter part of 1919. During the same period there were serious labor troubles. A general coal strike in bituminous fields was prevented only by the prompt action of the Government by declaring the strike illegal, and issued an injunction preventing the leaders from ordering a strike. A commission was appointed by the President in December to reconcile the differences between the employees and the employers. The railroads also assumed a threatening attitude, but these difficulties were temporarily reconciled pending the passage of railroad legislation in Congress. Several radical measures, the most important of which was the socalled Plumb Bill, were advanced by railroad employees and their representatives. This measure practically gave the railroads of the country into the hands of the employees. On Feb. 13, 1920, Robert L. Lansing resigned as Secretary of State, as a result of severe criticism on the part of President Wilson of his conduct in summoning the cabinet during the President's illness. He was succeeded by Bainbridge Colby of New Jersey. The presidential campaign of 1920 had for its chief issue the League of Nations. President Wilson, during the consideration of the measure in the Senate, had made an extensive tour of the country, which was ended only by a physical breakdown that for many months prevented his active participation in the affairs of the Government, and left him practically an invalid. The leading Republican candidates, prior to the convention, were General Leonard Wood; Governor Lowden, of Illinois; Senator Hiram Johnson, of California; and Herbert Hoover. The most conspicuous Democratic candidates were William G. Mc- Adoo and Governor James M. Cox of Ohio. Preferential primary elections were held in the various States during ous April. The Republican national campaign opened at Chicago, on June 8. Vol. Xew 9 The deadlock between General Wood and Governor Lowden ended on January 12 by the nomination of Senator Warren G. Harding, of Ohio, for president, and Governor Calvin Coolidge of Massachusetts for vice-president. At the Democratic National convention, which opened in San Francisco on June 28, James M. Cox was nominated for president on the 44th ballot, and on the following day Franklin D. Roosevelt of New York was nominated vice-president. On July 10, a Committee of 48 met in Chicago to form a third party, called the Farmer-Labor party. On July 10, Parley P. Christensen of Utah was nominated for president, and Max F. Hayes for vice-president. The election campaign which followed the nominations was aggressively carried on on both sides. Harding made no campaign tour, but remained at his home in Marion, Ohio, where he addressed delegations from day to day. James M. Cox, the Democratic nominee, took an extremely active part in the campaign, making speeches in practically every State. The chief avowed issue on the part of the Democrats was the League of Nations. The Republicans, however, devoted most of their attacks to the admin istration of President Wilson. In the election on November 2, Harding received 16,091,804 popular votes, and Cox 9,014,- 667. Harding and Coolidge received 404 electoral votes, and Cox and Roosevelt 127. The Republican candidates received the largest popular and electoral majority ever cast. The Democrats carried only 11 Southern States, losing Tennessee. The Congress elections gave the Republicans 307 members in the House, and the Democrats 127. The Republicans gained 10 seats in the Senate, giving them a majority of 22. The Woman Suffrage Amendment having been adopted prior to the election, women participate ticipated for the first time throughout the country. Following the election, Senator Harding remained at his home at Marion, with the exception of several brief trips for recreation. He announced on December 16 that Vice-President Coolidge would occupy a seat in the cabinet. During the period between his election and his inauguration, Mr. Harding gave chief attention to the selection of a cabinet and to conferences with prominent Republican leaders. The cabinet was not announced until the inauguration. It was as follows: Secretary of State, Charles E. Hughes, of New York; Secretary of the Treasury, Andrew W. Mellon, of Pennsylvania; Secretary of War, John W. Weeks, of Massachusetts; Secretary of the Navy, Edwin C. Denby, of Michigan; Secretary of the Interior, Albert B. Fall, of Mexico; Postmaster General, Will H. Hays, of Ohio; Attorney-General, Harry M. Daugherty, of Ohio; Secretary of Agriculture, Henry C. Wallace, of Iowa; Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover, of California; and Secretary of Labor, James J. Davis, of Pennsylvania. The inauguration took place on March 4, 1921, with a sir simple and dignified demonstration. On March 23 the President issued a call for a special session of Congress, to be held on April 11, 1921. UNITED STATES CHRISTIAN COM- MISSION, an organization founded by National Young Men's Christian Asthe sociation to perform religious and charitable work among the Union forces during the Civil War. It was first suggested by Vincent Colyer, who immediately after the battle of Bull Run, in July, 1861, went to Washington to do Christian work in the hospitals and camps in and around that city. His suggestion that a society similar to the United States Sanitary Commission be organized by the Young Men's Christian Associations of the country was acted upon by a convention called for the purpose in New York City, Nov. 14, 1861. The United States Christian Commission was then formed, and George H. Stuart, of Philadelphia, was elected president. The work of the commission was mainly moral and religious; but while it circulated Bibles, books, leaflets, etc., in camps, ships, and hospitals, it also distributed much food, clothing, hospital stores, and delicacies. Like the Sanitary Commission, it followed in the wake of the great armies, and gave efficient aid to the army and navy chaplains in throwing Christian influence around soldiers and sailors. In its benevolent work, the commission expended over $6,000,000, most of which was collected by the women in the different religious denominations. UNITED STATES COAST SURVEY. See COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY, a school for the practical and theoretic education of officers for the military service of the United States. The present academy at West Point was opened in 1802. From that time until November, 1918, 6,539 cadets were graduated. In the latter year, two classes were graduated before the normal time, on account of the necessity for more officers. Provision was made by Congress for larger membership of classes. There were in 1920, 735 cadets and 156 teachers. During recent years a number of new buildings have been erected. The superintendent in 1921 was Brigadier-General Douglas Mac- Arthur. SEUM, a collection of objects of scientific and historical interest constituting a part of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D. C. The collection had its origin in a collection of minerals and other similar objects kept in a few cabinets by Smithson, which he later turned over to the Government. The present name was first adopted in 1876. Three years later Congress appropriated $4,- 000,000 for a building to house the collection, which had rapidly grown on account of the contributions in specimens made rich in exhibits illustrating the industribes and the fisheries of the United States. In 1913 Congress appropriated another $3,500,000 for enlarging both housing accommodations and the collections of the Museum. UNITED STATES NAVAL ACAD- EMY, a school for the education of officers of the United States Navy, at Annapolis, Md. It was founded in 1845. There were, in 1920, 1,803 midshipmen and 245 instructors. During the war period, the course of instruction was reduced from four to three years, but in October, 1919, the four-year course was resumed by the three lower classes. Many new buildings have been added to the campus in recent years. Among these is the Navigation and Seamanship building, erected in 1921. The superintendent in that year was Rear-Admiral A. H. Scales. SHIPPING UNITED STATES BOARD, created by one of the many emergency war measures passed by Congress shortly after the declaration of war against Germany, in April, 1917, to take over and operate merchant shipping and to build new ships for overseas transportation. By the end of the year the Board had taken over 132 shipyards, in which cargo ships exclusively were being built. For this work Congress had appropriated $1,135,000,000, which, however, included the appropriation for the Emergency Fleet Corporation, subordinate to the Shipping Board. Aside from its program of vast shipbuilding the Shipping Board also had power to take over any American merchant ship suitable to the war needs of the emergency. In the beginning of 1918 the Board secured a further appropriation of $800,- 000,000, bringing the total up to $2,100,- 000,000.