Telephotography
the tranmission of photographs to a distance by wire TELEPHOTOGRAPHY, the tranmisor by radio. The process depends on the extreme sensitiveness of the element selenium to light, this sensitiveness affecting its electrical resistance. The photoing its electrical resistance. The photoacross the path of a ray of light so that every part is recorded successively on a selenium cell connected into an electrical circuit, the record being made by variations in the current caused by the varying resistance of the selenium. Another tions in the current caused by the varymove in precisely the same way as the photographic film that is being transmitted, and, as it moves, its various portions are exposed successively to rays of light emitted by a bulb whose degree of illuare exposed successively to rays of light rent or oscillations set up by the action on the transmitting end. On Nov. 14, 1920, photographs of the Yale-Princeton on the transmitting end. On Nov. 14, wire from New York to St. Louis, the whole operation of sending four pictures being performed in about eight minutes.
The first wireless transmission of photo- TRANSMUTATION ing to its application to machinery are by no means new. Some use of the tides is already made in a limited way. The direct application of the rise and fall of the total power under such conditions, sible in most places, since such rise and fall or ebb and flow is too slight and gradual under ordinary conditions; while the total power under such conditions, although very great, is too dispersed.
However, there are places formed by nature where tides, being forced in between converging shore lines, rise to great heights and where their whole force is concentrated within narrow limits. The rise of the tide in the Bay of Fundy is between sixty and seventy feet; and in a similar way the estuaries of many rivers afford examples of very high tides, as, a height of thirty feet. The tides or "bores" of great rivers like the Amazon a height of thirty feet. The tides or England, where the spring tide reaches for utilizing the tides consists of the erec- tion of tidal basins. The inflowing water "bores" of great rivers like the Amazon ten to fifteen feet. The ordinary plan for utilizing the tides consists of the erection of tidal basins. The inflowing water is used to operate water wheels and the outflow is similarly applied to water wheels or turbines. One objection to the use of natural tides is their intermittent and irregular character, but recent plans include the storage of some of the incoming water in special reservoirs, to be bines may be operated continuously. Proposals for the utilization of tidal power posals for the utilization of tidal power on a large scale have been made in recent Dr. Arthur Little of America, and others. Such proposals include the construction Dr. Arthur Little of America, and others.
Such proposals include the construction of tidal basins in the English Channel and the estuary of the Severn River, while a still more ambitious proposal is for the erection of a tidal basin to include is estimated that the English Channel basin would furnish about half a million horsepower and that the basin in the Gulf of St. Malo would supply a quarter of all the power at present used by the industries of France. A novel application of tidal power is made on the coast of California, where the air in a rockformed cavern on the shore is trapped graphs was accomplished in August, by the rise of the tide and so compressed. 1920, when photographs of Lloyd George and others were sent from Copenhagen to London. At the end of November, 1921, a photograph of President Harding was sent by wireless from Annapolis to Paris, the time consumed being about twenty minutes.
TIDAL POWER. The enormous power of the tides of the ocean is a matter of universal observation, and projects look- By appropriate connections this compressed air is used to operate machinery and do other useful work. Tidal power is popularly termed "blue coal."
TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS.
TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS. before the advent of scientific chemistry, that one metal might be changed into another, the particular problem which they set for themselves being that of trans- UNEMPLOYMENT muting the baser metals into gold. The atomic theory of the constitution of matter was afterward universally accepted as indicating that the elements of the universe were unchangeable; but with the discovery of radium and other radioactive substances, which are gradually changed to other elements, and with the acceptance of the electron theory (q. v.), it was realized that transmutation of elements was at least a possibility, and still further discoveries in regard to the composition of the stars seemed to indicate that many of the elements there existed as a consequence of being evolved from others in the process of cooling from enormously high temperatures. It seemed to follow that the application of equally high temperatures might be successful in chang- UNITED STATES ing the less simple elements into more simple ones, and this task was undertaken by scientists, being accomplished during 1921. By means of an artificial lightning flash producing a temperature of over 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit, Dr.
Gerald L. Wendt and C. E. Irion of the University of Chicago converted the metal tungsten into helium. An electric condenser charged to 100,000 volts was discharged through a fine-drawn tungsten wire and the tungsten atoms were decomposed into helium. TRANSPORTATION ACT OF 1920. (See INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMIS- SION, Vol. V.) U UNEMPLOYMENT CONFERENCE. (See UNITED STATES, 1921-1922.) TURKEY. (See NEAR EAST, above.) Justice White of United States. Note of Secretary Colby against use of force in the controversy answered by Costa Rica UNITED STATES (March 4, 1921- March 5, 1921, accepting good offices of March 4, 1922.) FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
Allied Councils. - On May 6, 1921, the United States Government accepted the invitation of the Allied Conference at London to resume participation in the deliberations of Allied Conferences (Supreme Council); and at the same time in structed the American ambassador at Paris and Roland W. Boyden to resume their places as unofficial observers on the Conference of Ambassadors and the Reparation Commission respectively. Ambassador George Harvey was instructed to represent the President of the United States on the Supreme Council.
Colombian Treaty, ratified by the Senate April 20, 1921. Colombia given free use of the Panama Canal for warships and all Colombian products and mails, exempt from all charges other than those to which American goods and mails are subject. Colombian citizens crossing the Canal Zone to have the same exemptions as United States citizens. Colombia recognizes the Republic of Panama as an independent state, and receives from the United States $25,000,000. Senate vote of ratification, 69 to 19.
Costa Rica-Panama Dispute. -Feb. 21, 1921, Costa Rican forces invaded Coto region between the two countries, held by Panama, but awarded to Costa Rica by arbitration of President Loubet of France, afterward interpreted by Chief United States. Panama's answer unsatisfactory. Secretary Hughes in note of March 5 called on both parties to desist from hostilities, afterward showing in note of March 14 that by a treaty signed in 1915 Panama and Costa Rica had agreed to submit any dispute that might arise between them for adjudication by the United States. White Award insisted on by Secretary Hughes. American marines despatched August 20, and Chief Justice Taft named commission August 24 to delimit boundary in accordance with White decision. Panama protested that it yielded only to force, but evacuated Coto region Sept. 5, 1921.
Haiti. (See HAITI.) Mandates. (See MA Mexican Relations. - Recognition of s.- (See MANDATES.) President Obregon by the United States was withheld throughout 1921, the American Government demanding an advance treaty with Mexico to safeguard American property rights against confiscation under a provision in the Mexican constitution. President Obregon refused to make any pledge or treaty as a condition of American recognition. An export tax on oil, effective July 1, 1921, led to the closing down of American-owned wells, but production was resumed September 5, following an agreement made by American oil representatives directly with the Mexican government.
Peace Resolution, terminating war with Germany and Austria, signed by Presi- UNITED STATES dent Harding July 2, 1921. Peace Treaty with German signed August 25 by Ellis Loring Dresel, American High Commissioner. The United States received confirmation of all rights and advantages as provided under the Treaty of Versailles, while repudiating obligations under parts of that treaty, particularly the sections relating to the League of Nations. Peace Treaty with Austria signed Aug. 24, 1921. Treaties ratified by Senate October 18. Peace with Germany proclaimed November 12. Peace with Austria proclaimed November 18. Reparation Commission. - Roland W.
Boyden reappointed to sit as unofficial observer for the United States, May 6, 1921.
Russian Relations. - March 25, 1921, Secretary Hughes replied to Russian Soviet request for trade agreement with the United States, refusing to enter into trade relations until fundamental changes had been made in Russia. In reply to Maxim Gorky's appeal for outside help in the Russian famine, Secretary Hoover (for American Relief Administration) offered aid on condition all American political prisoners in Russia be freed and that Relief Administration should be free from interference. Agreement reached August 19. Col. William N. Haskell appointed to supervise relief work. Five thousand tons of food sent in September.
Dec. 23, 1921, Congress voted $20,000,000 for Russian relief. January report stated that by March five million adults and two million children would be sustained by American grain. In January Russia voted $10,000,000 to be spent for food in the United States.
Santo Domingo. - (See SANTO Do- MINGO.) Washington Conference on Limitation of Armament, Nov. 12, 1921, to Feb. 6, 1922. (See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.) Yap Controversy. (See MANDATES, YAP TREATY.) LEGISLATION AND IMPORTANT COURT DECISIONS.
Agricultural Relief Loan Act, approved Aug. 24, 1921, authorizing the War Finance Corporation to make loans to banks, trust companies, or cooperative associations up to a total of two billion dollars for reloan to farmers and dealers in agricultural products to enable them to withhold surplus stocks from the market until these can be exported or sold for export under normal conditions.
Loans may also be made to persons outside the United States for the purchase of American agricultural products. War Finance Corporation report Dec. 22, 1921, showed advances of over 82 million dollars for agricultural and live-stock pur- UNITED STATES poses and over 51 millions for export purposes.
Anti-Beer Act, approved Nov. 23, 1921, prohibiting the prescription of beer and other malt liquors for medicinal purposes.
So-called Stanley amendment forbidding search of private houses or property without warrants modified to apply only to private residences. Offices, vehicles, and persons searchable without warrant on "probable cause."
Budget Act, creating Bureau of Budget in Treasury Department, approved June 10, 1921. First Director of the Budget Charles G. Dawes, appointed June 21.
Director's report Dec. 5, 1921, estimated expenses of Government for fiscal year ending June 30, 1922, at $3,967,922,366, and for fiscal year 1923 at $3,505,754,727.
Cooperative Marketing Act. (See Co- OPERATIVE MARKETING.) Emergency Tariff Act, approved May 27, 1921, primarily to protect agricultural interests, and with an anti-dumping clause. Foreign Debt Refunding Act. (See FOREIGN DEBTS.) Immigration Restriction Act. (See IM- MIGRATION RESTRICTION.) Railway Rate Decision, by U. S. Supreme Court Feb. 27, 1922, affirming the right of the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate rates within the several States when necessary to remove unfair discrimination against interstate commerce. The decision does not involve general regulation of intrastate commerce.
Rent Decisions. - New York Court of Appeals upholds constitutionality of rent laws (March 8, 1921), declaring contract rights must yield to public welfare. April 18, 1921, U. S. Supreme Court upholds constitutionality of New York and other housing laws restricting rent increases, on the ground that limitation of the rights of real property is warranted in case of public emergency.
Revenue Act of 1921, approved Nov. 23, 1921. Excess profits and transportation taxes repealed from Jan. 1, 1922. Maximum surtax rate reduced to 50 per cent over President Harding's request for reduction to compromise figure of 40 per cent. Personal exemptions of married persons increased.
Veterans' Bureau Act. (See VETER- ANS BUREAU.) Woman Suffrage Amendment Decision, U. S. Supreme Court Feb. 27, 1922, declaring the Amendment applicable to States which have not ratified it and whose laws limit the suffrage to men.
MISCELLANEOUS EVENTS.
Agricultural Conference, Washington, Jan. 23-28, 1922. Called by President UNITED STATES UNITED STATES ARMY Harding to consider existing agricultural party controlling Porto Rican Legislaproblems and to lay down a general policy for the future. Resolutions adopted favoring limitation of crop acreage pending an improvement in conditions in America and Europe; also resolutions insisting that capital and labor in general, and particularly railroad capital and labor, should share in the deflation of charges affecting all industry.
Alaska Report. -First report of Governor Scott C. Bone, Dec. 6, 1921, declaring the need of capital and people in the territory. Under long-range system of government, individual initiative and the pioneer spirit had been halted. Population had declined 10,000 in ten years. American Legion. - Hanford MacNider of Mason City, Iowa, elected commander Nov. 2, 1921, succeeding John G. Emery.
Army. - Appropriation Act approved June 30, 1921, reduced enlisted strength to 150,000. Plans for organized reserve announced Sept. 27, providing for 27 infantry divisions as skeleton for possible port of War Department Oct. 10, 1921, showed 126,000 officers and men in Na mobilization of four million men. tional Guard units.
Re- Foreign Trade. - Department of Commerce report Jan. 30, 1922, showed falling off of exports to Europe from $4,466, 000,000 in 1920 to $2,364,000,000 in 1921.
Imports fell from $1,228,000,000 to $765,- 000,000. Exports to South America fell from $6 $624,000,000 in 1920 to $273,000,- 000 in 1921. Imports from South America $761,000,000 in 1920, $296,000,000 in 1921.
Ku Klux Klan Revival. - A secret society revived as a chartered fraternal organization in the South in 1915. It entered the North in 1921, with active bodies in many States and cities, its avowed object being to unite native-born white Christians in the preservation of American institutions. Negroes, Japs, Jews, Roman Catholics, and all foreignborn persons barred from membership. Its pretensions were that it assisted the authorities in upholding the laws against criminal violence, foreign agitation, and abuse of freedom. Its methods, like those of the old Ku Klux Klan, were the methods of secrecy and terrorism. Exposure of its methods in the newspapers led to steps for its suppression.
Labor Organizations. The first annual report of Attorney-General Daugherty stated that the international communist movement was gaining control of American labor organizations, and urged deportation of alien agitators. Porto Rico.-E. Mont Reily of Kansas City appointed governor May, 1921. Inaugurated July 30. Strongly opposed to independence program of Unionist ture. Delegation of Unionists in U. S., December, 1921, asked removal of governor, charging maladministration and political abuses. On Dec. 13 President Harding instructed him to return to his duties. Formal charges against him were made to Congress, March 2, 1922, by the Porto Rican resident commissioner. A petition of Porto Ricans, Jan. 18, 1922, asked for an autonomous form of government.
Race Question. In a speech at Birmingham, Ala., Oct. 26, 1921, President Harding declared the negro entitled to political equality of rights, but added that this did not mean social equality.
Railroads. Railway wages cut an average of 12 per cent. by decision of Railway Labor Board, June 1, 1921.
Threatened nation-wide strike of railway employees finally called off Oct. 27.
Freight rates reduced on grain and hay 16 per cent., Oct. 22, 1921, the Interstate Commerce Commission applying the principle of reasonableness, not operating costs, in rate making. Open-shop working rules promulgated by Railway Labor Board, Dec. 1, 1921. The net operating income of U. S. railways in 1921 was $615,625,619, or 3.31 per cent. of valuation. Total operating revenue for 1921 was 10.6 per cent. less than for 1920. Total operating expenses were 21.1 per cent. less than in 1920.
Soldier Dead. - Secretary Weeks announced March 1, 1921, that the United States had begun the removal home of the bodies of American soldiers in France. 19,681 requests had been received to allow the dead to rest permanently abroad.
Nov. 11, 1921, burial of America's Unknown Soldier at Arlington. Unemployment Conference, Washington, September-October, 1921. Emergency program recommended, Sept. 30, for relief of unemployed, estimated at from 3½ to 5½ million men. Public-works construction urged on cities, States, and Federal Government. Permanent program recommended readjustment of railroad rates, speedy completion of tax and tariff legislation, limitation of armaments, and elimination of wastes and fluctuations in employments. Vitality Statistics. Committee on Elimination of Waste in Industry reported, December, 1921, that duration of life in the United States had increased an average of five years since 1909.
National vitality reported increasing.
Average of 2,400,000 persons continuously ill.
UNITED STATES ARMY. (See MILITARY ORGANIZATION, Vol. VI.) VACUUM TUBE 47 WASHINGTON CONFERENCE
VACUUM TUBE, THERMIONIC. 930,729 had been made for relief of ex- (See AUDION, WIRELESS TELEPHONY.) VETERANS' BUREAU, an independent Government bureau established under the President by Act of Congress, approved Aug. 9, 1921. It is intrusted with the powers and duties formerly exercised by the Bureau of War Risk Insurance, the Rehabilitation Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, and certain branches of the Public Health Service similarly relating to the rehabilitation of veterans. It is thus responsible in general for the care of sick or disabled ex-service men, for their rehabilitation and vocational training, and for the administration of veterans' compensation, allotments, and insurance. The act creating the Veterans' Bureau empowers the director, who is named by the President, to divide the country into not more than fourteen regional offices for the direct hearing of complaints, awarding of compensation and insurance claims, and granting hospital care and vocational training, subject to appeal to the director at Washington. The report of the director, Colonel Charles R. Forbes, issued March 4, 1922, states that up to that time the Veterans' Bureau (including the work of its former divisions) had considered 1,418,912 claims, of which 831,767 had been allowed, including 381,- 717 claims for compensation, 299,879 for vocational education, and 150,171 for insurance. A total expenditure of $1,259,service men.
VILNA. A dispute between Poland and Lithuania over the town and district of Vilna arose at the end of 1920. On September 5 the Polish Government had asked the Council of the League of Nations to intervene to prevent a war over the boundaries between the two countries and the council had undertaken the question, both parties agreeing to abide by its decisions. But on Oct. 8, 1920, Vilna (which had previously been held by Russian troops) was captured from them by Polish irregulars under the Polish general Zeligowski, who continued to hold the town and district in defiance of orders of the Polish Government. A plebiscite was ordered, but was afterward postponed in favor of direct negotiations between Poland and Lithuania, the situation being complicated by the attitude of General Zeligowski. The League Commission was able to maintain the peace, but none of its proposals proved to be acceptable. On Nov. 16, 1921, the president of Poland proposed a plan for a "Central Lithuanian State" and the holding of elections in the disputed district. General Zeligowski resigned and the elections were held on Jan. 8, 1922, but Lithuania announced that it would not be bound by the results and the elections were also without the league's sanction. The results were in favor of annexation to Poland.
W WALES: CENSUS OF 1921. (See first adopted by the United States Sen- ENGLAND and WALES.) WAR FINANCE CORPORATION. (See UNITED STATES, 1921: AGRICUL- TURAL RELIEF.) WAR RULES COMMISSION. (See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.) WASHINGTON CONFERENCE, 1921- 1922, officially known as Conference on the Limitation of Armament and Pacific and Far Eastern Questions. The original motion for a conference of the nations to consider disarmament was embodied in the so-called Borah Resolution, ate, May 25, 1921, authorizing and requesting the President to invite Great Britain and Japan to discuss reduction of naval armaments. On July 10 President Harding made public the announcement that not only Great Britain and Japan, but France, Italy, and China had been invited to a conference whose purpose would be not merely to discuss limitation of armaments, but also Pacific and Far Eastern questions. The four first-named nations were invited to participate with the United States as full members of the conference, while China was invited to discuss only Far Eastern matters, and WASHINGTON CONFERENCE this limited invitation was also extended by general consent to the Netherlands, Belgium, and Portugal.
The conference was formally opened Nov. 12, 1921, and continued in session till Feb. 6, 1922, its final results and accomplishments being embodied in five main treaties and twelve resolutions, in addition to which an agreement regarding the return of Shantung to China was signed by the Chinese and Japanese representatives, and a treaty concerning the island of Yap was signed by Japan and the United States immediately following the conference. A treaty allocating the former German-owned cables in the Pacific Ocean to the United States, Japan, and the Netherlands severally was also agreed to by Great Britain, France, Italy, and the nations mentioned. The original agenda of the conference included limitation of land as well as of naval armament, but no attempt was made to discuss this limitation after Premier Briand of France had appeared in person and declared the impossibility of France's reducing her forces in the absence of guarantees of safety against German attack. The American delegation at the conference was composed of Secretary of State Charles E. Hughes, ex-Secretary Elihu Root, and Senators Lodge and Underwood.
Five-Power Naval Limitations Treaty. -A definite proposition for the immediate reduction and limitation of naval armament was dramatically presented to the members of the conference by Secretary Hughes at the opening session. The United States proposed for herself the immediate scrapping of 30 capital ships, either built or building, and of a total tonnage of 845,000 tons. Great Britain was to scrap almost 600,000 tons, either built, building, or projected, and Japan almost 450,000 tons. It was further proposed to stop new building for ten years and then to build only for replacement purposes. A limited total tonnage was proposed, not only for capital ships, but for other surface combatant craft, airplane carriers, and submarines. The auxiliary craft and submarine limitations were afterward dropped on account of disagreements, but the American proposals in regard to capital ships were substantially those embodied in the socalled Five-Power Naval Treaty, signed Feb. 6, 1922, by the plenipotentiaries of the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, and Japan. By this treaty the contracting parties agreed to limit their respective naval armaments to certain specified capital ships, to dispose of all others, either built or building, ing, and not to acquire any further such ships WASHINGTON CONFERENCE for a period of ten years, and then only for replacement. A summary of the details of the treaty follows:
Capital ships allowed to be retained by the United States (after certain immediate replacements), 18 in number, total tonnage 525,850 tons; Great Britain, 20 ships, 558,950 tons total; France, 10 ships, 221,170 tons total, with 70,000 additional tons permitted to be laid down in 1927 and 1929; Italy, 10 ships of 182,- 800 tons total, with additional tonnage allowed as to France; Japan, 10 ships, 301,320 tons total. Replacements not to begin before 1931, and the United States and Great Britain to be limited to a total capital-ship replacement of 525,000 tons apiece; Japan to a total of 315,000 tons; and France and Italy to 175,000 tons apiece. No new capital ship to be built in excess of 35,000 tons displacement nor to carry a gun in excess of 16-inch caliber. Aircraft carriers to be limited to a total tonnage of 135,000 tons apiece for the United States and Great Britain, 81,- 000 tons for Japan, and 60,000 tons apiece for France and Italy. War vessels other than capital ships, and aircraft carriers, not limited as to number, but no such vessel to be built of more than 10,000 tons displacement, and no vessel other than a capital ship to carry any gun in excess of 8-inch caliber. Merchant ships not to be prepared in time of peace for the installation of warlike armament.
Pacific Fortifications Agreement.-Under Article XIX. of the Five-Power Naval Treaty, the United States, the British Empire, and Japan agree to maintain the status quo with regard to fortifications and naval bases in their respective insular possessions in the Far East, this agreement implying that no new fortifications or naval bases shall be established in the places named, and that no measures shall be taken to increase existing fortifications or naval facilities. Five-Power Submarine and Noxious Gas Treaty. - By this treaty the signatory powers declare that they will consider it to be an established part of international law that merchant vessels cannot be attacked until they have refused to submit to visit and search, and that such vessels must not be destroyed unless crews and passengers have been placed in safety. Belligerent submarines are expressly declared to be not exempt from these stated rules, and it is declared that any person violating the rules shall be deemed liable to trial and punishment as if for an act of piracy. The five powers agree, as among themselves, to accept the prohibition of the use of submarines as commerce destroyers, and WASHINGTON CONFERENCE WHITE SLAVE TRAFFIC other nations are invited to adhere to to take steps looking to the abolition of such agreement. The prohibition of extraterritorial jurisdiction in China, the noxious gases in warfare is likewise accepted by the signatory powers as binding among themselves, and all nations are invited to subscribe to the agreement.
Four-Power Treaty on Pacific Possessions. The so-called Four-Power Treaty was signed by the representatives of the United States, Great Britain, France, and Japan, Dec. 13, 1921, and was ratified by the United States Senate, March 24, 1922. The contracting parties agree in this treaty to respect each other's rights in relation to their several insular possessions in the Pacific Ocean. In case of any controversy arising which involves these rights, and cannot be settled diplomatically, the powers agree to come together in a joint conference to which the controversy shall be referred for consideration and adjustment. If the said rights are threatened by the aggressive action of any outside party, the four contracting parties parties agree to communicate with one another with a view to arriving at the best measures to be taken jointly or separately to meet the needs of the situation. By Article 4 of the treaty, the agreement between Great Britain and Japan constituting the so-called Anglo-Japanese alliance was declared to be terminated.
Rules of Warfare Commission. A Rules of Warfare Commission, to be composed of two representatives of each of the five major powers, was authorized by resolution of the Washington conference, Jan. 27, 1922, such commission to report what changes might be necessary in order that international law might cover new developments in weapons and in methods of warfare.
Treaties and Resolves Concerning China. The nations of the conference agreed in these treaties to respect the sovereignty and integrity of China; to use their influence to maintain in that country the principle of equal opportunity for all nations; and to refrain from seeking or supporting their nationals in seeking any special privileges or spheres of influence. China agreed to permit no unfair discrimination on her railroads, and the other nations agreed to respect China's rights as a neutral in case of war. A Board of Reference was created by the powers to investigate and report on any question arising out of these several agreements. In a separate treaty provision was made for changes in the Chinese customs tariff with a view to providing additional revenues to meet the needs of the Chinese Government, and the nations agreed in various resolutions withdrawal of foreign troops and post offices, and the regulation of radio facilities.
Shantung and Other Foreign Holdings in China. A separate agreement in regard to Shantung was signed at Washington between China and Japan, Feb. 6, 1922, providing that China should receive back from Japan all the former German concessions in Shantung acquired by Japan in 1915. The Chinese Government Government ag agreed to pay Japan the value of the Tsing-tao-Tsinanfu Railway, amounting to 53 million gold marks, this sum to be paid in from five to fifteen years, and Japan in the meantime to retain a Japanese traffic manager. In connection with Japan's withdrawal from Shantung, Great Britain and France agreed to withdraw from Wei-Hai-Wei and Kwang-chow-wang respectively, but Great Britain declined to withdraw from Kowloon, opposite Hongkong, and Japan emphatically refused to consider any revision of her 99-year leases on Port Arthur and Dalny. She agreed to certain modifications of her former "Twentyone Demands" on China, involving concessions in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia, but the modifications were not satisfactory to China.
Siberia. The original agenda of the Washington conference included the discussion of Siberian problems, but the efforts of the United States to pledge Japan to any immediate withdrawal from Siberia or from North Saghalin were not successful. Japan disavowed all designs against Russian territory and promised to withdraw as soon as political stability was re-established and when certain demanded indemnities were paid for the massacre of 700 Japanese citizens, which occurred at Nikolaievsk in 1920.
WEATHER FORECASTING.
METEOROLOGY, Vol. VI.) (See WEI-HAI-WEI. (See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE: SHANTUNG, etc.) WHITE SLAVE TRAFFIC: INTER- NATIONAL. The necessity of international control of the white-slave traffic, in order to make such control effective, has long been realized. In certain backward regions of the world, women and girls are procured virtually by force and by methods which the weakness and helplessness of the local governments cannot restrain. Such conditions have prevailed and continue to prevail in the regions adjacent to and lately subject to Turkey. Actual captivity of large numbers of Armenian, Syrian, and Greek WILLIAMS COLLEGE women has existed since the World War, in the same way as it existed previously when those countries were portions of the Turkish Empire; and the backward conditions and relations of races in that and other regions of the world will continue to make the weaker races victims of the stronger without international control. Secondly, even in civilized nations a large percentage of the victims of white slavery are immigrant girls and women who are practically unprotected in the absence of international co-operation. The first steps toward such international action were taken in Europe in 1899, leading to a conference in 1902 and to an international convention signed at Paris in 1904, which established a system of tracing and returning to their native countries women and girls who were victims of the traffic. The United States was not a participant in these early conferences, but it afterward adhered to the Paris convention, which was proclaimed by President Roosevelt in 1908 and which led to the enactment of the Mann White Slave Act of 1910, with out which the international agreement had proved unenforceable. Two subsequent international conferences were held and a new convention was signed in 1910, but to this the United States did not become a party. Under Article XXIII. of the League of Nations Covenant, the general supervision of agreements in regard to the international traffic in women and children was intrusted to the league, which in 1920 took steps to aid women deported during the war, especially Armenian, Syrian, and Greek women who had been in captivity since 1915. The treaty of peace made with Turkey at Sèvres permitted the league to take such measures in Asia Minor and in Armenia, and the Persian Government afterward requested that Persia be included under this provision.
At the first league assembly a questionnaire was issued to all civilized governments, asking what measures had been taken to combat the traffic; and all nations which were parties to the conventions of 1904 and 1910 were invited to participate in a new conference.
WILLIAMS COLLEGE. Institute of Politics. (See INSTITUTE OF POLITICS.) In WILSON, HENRY BRAID. An American naval officer, born at Camden, N. J., Feb. 23, 1861. He was graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy in 1881.
Spanish-American War in 1898. He was appointed a captain in 1911 and commanded the battleship "North Dakota" from 1911-1913, and the battleship "Penn- WIRELESS TELEPHONY sylvania" from 1916-1917. In 1917 he was made rear-admiral and commanded the Patrol Force of the Atlantic Fleet from 1917 to 1918. On Jan. 7, 1918, he was made commander of the U. S. Naval Forces in France. At the close of the war he was made admiral of the Atlantic Fleet, holding this command until he was assigned to be head of the U. S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, succeeding Rear- Admiral Archibald H. Scales May 10, 1921.
WIND ALOFT MAPS. (See AERO- NAUTICS: WEATHER SERVICE.)
WIRELESS TELEPHONY. The year 1921 witnessed the beginning of an extraordinary growth in wireless telephony. The immediate cause of the sudden expansion, so far as the general public was concerned, was the inauguration of a system of popular radiophone broadcasting by a number of radio manufacturing companies. Daily programs of music and other entertainment began to be furnished by these manufacturing companies from radio stations at convenient points, the programs so sent out being able to be picked up by any amateur receiving station equipped with suitable apparatus. The progress of invention back of this broadcasting had in the meantime not only perfected wireless apparatus and operations, but had so greatly reduced production costs that an ordinary receiving set had been brought within the reach of almost every household. Toward the end of 1921 it was estimated that there were about 50,000 non-professional receiving stations in the United States, and this number was increasing at such a rate that by March, 1922, it was estimated at over 300,000. In the meantime, in addition to amusement broadcasting, the perfecting of methods for talking through space had prepared the way for the rapid extension of radio-telephony to many other fields. Telephony requires no human expert either for sending or receiving messages, and thus direct communication is possible with persons in every situation, with engineers and switchmen, with pilots and shipmasters, with aeronauts and their passengers, as well as with every individual household, business exchange, or isolated farm, to which weather reports and weather warnings, news items, market quotations, etc., may be communicated without the agency of any expert sender or receiver.
Radio-telephone communication between airplanes and ground stations began in the World War. Since then it has been developed progressively in the air mail and airplane passenger services, both as a means of convenience and of safety.
Its value in every kind of navigation, WIRELESS TELEPHONY WIRELESS TELEPHONY and its great superiority to telegraphy in all its variations, but with its infor such uses, are equally obvious. A more recent development is the installation of radio-telephones on fastmoving trains. A test made in March, 1922, on the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad demonstrated the entire practicability of such phones, and a feature of the test was the satisfactory audibility of the wireless messages in long underground tunnels. The perfecting of radio apparatus was followed as early as 1920 by the he inauguration of commercial communication. Probably the first commercial service connecting telephone subscribers by radio was that established between Los Angeles and the Catalina Islands, off the coast of California. The connection between the subscriber and central is made by wire at both ends of the services, the gap in the line across the water being completed by wireless waves. wireless waves .
By the same method it is already proposed to bridge the gap across the ocean, enabling the telephone subscriber in America to talk with one in a European country. Conversely, by the system of "wired wireless," a radio message may may be wiredirected to a chosen terminal anywhere on the continent. This system is already in commercial operation .
Radio-telephony surpasses ordinary wire telephony in the clearness of its reproductions, and may thus be expected to replace it more and more, up to the limit of practical application.
Apparatus and Operation. The wonders of recent wireless history are due to the development, above everything else, of the thermionic or three -element vacuum tube, for whose construction and underlying principle of operation see AUDION. The vacuum tube has revolutionized the processes of wireless communication, being used at every stage of transmission and reception. It was first used as a detector, and in nearly all systems it has now replaced other types of detectors because of its high sensitiveness and ease of operation. It converts the oscillations of the incoming radio waves into the unidirectional current needed for the reproduction of intelligible sounds in the telephone receiver.
In small sets for merely local use, a crystal receiver gives excellent results and requires no battery for its operation.
The vacuum tube has a second important use as an amplifier of wave intensities.
It is evident that a current of any strength may be made to flow in the plate-filament circuit described under AUDION, this current remaining sensitively controlled by the variations pressed on the grid. In other words, a feeble current is accurately reproduced tensity renewed or amplified. By the use of a number of vacuum tubes it is possible to gain an almost unlimited amount of amplification. The voice of President Harding, speaking at Arlington, Va., Nov. 11, 1921, was amplified and re-amplified as it was carried across the continent, SO that it was clearly heard at last by over 20,000 persons gathered in an auditorium at San Francisco. When an amplifier is connected into a telephone circuit to increase the intensity of the audible sounds, it is known as an audio-frequency amplifier.
More recently, the practice has been to employ it in increasing the strength of incoming radio waves before these reach the telephone circuit, in which case it is called a radio-frequency amplifier .
Finally, the vacuum tube is employed in the generation of radio waves, the process of receiving being here practically reversed. For low-power transmission the vacuum tube has largely superseded all other methods, and more powerful tubes are being developed. The waves generated by these tubes have great range on small voltage. In tests made Dec. 7, 1921, a number of amateurs, using vacuum tubes, S cceeded in getting messages across the Atlantic Ocean, their sets being limited to one kilowatt power.
The power developed by the great oscillation generators used in the high-power transmitting stations varies from 100 to 1,000 kilowatts.
Aerials. The aerials antennæ, whose vibrations are the medium by which the ether oscillations are produced, vary from those of the great high-power transatlantic stations with their miles of wire stretched on high steel towers to simple loops or frames of wire. For receiving purposes, a few feet of wire attached to a second-story bedspring, with another wire grounded through a pipe, will give satisfactory results , the aerial and ground wire being connected through a detector and headphone . or Radiophone Broadcasting. -Radio-telephony is a ready means of disseminating many kinds of information and entertain- Weather and market reports ment. for farmers (previously sent out by telegraphic methods from the Government air-mail radio stations) become more directly available to the users when transmitted to them by the spoken word. Sermons delivered in churches are broadcasted; courses of lectures have been instituted (April, 1922); business corporations and individuals advertise by broadcasting. At the beginning of 1922 it was estimated that there were over 14,000 private sending stations in the United States WOMAN SUFFRAGE DECISION 52 A receiving set is tuned to respond to only one length of wave at a time, and the different established sending stations each use a characteristic wave length; but even with all possible sharpness of tuning, there are not enough wave lengths to avoid duplication. Accordingly it was found to be out of the question to permit unlimited radio broadcasting, and a radio conference was called at W ington, Feb. 27, 1922, to work out some system of regulation.
Wash- WOMAN SUFFRAGE DECISION. (See UNITED STATES, 1921.) WOOD-FORBES REPORT ON PHILIPPINES. (See PHILIPPINE IS- LANDS: WOOD-FORBES REPORT.) YAP TREATY eral thought, or peace through justice.
The awards will be made from time to time by a nationally constituted committee of men and women. WORK, DR. HUBERT, second Postmaster-General in President Harding's Cabinet, was born at Marion Center, Pa., July 3, 1860. He studied medicine at the University of Michigan and afterward at the University of Pennsylvania, from which he was graduated in 1885. After practicing for several years at Greeley and Fort Morgan, Colo., he removed to Pueblo, where in 1896 he established a hospital for the treatment of mental and nervous diseases, a field of his profession in which he soon achieved a recognized leadership. In 1911 he was elected president of the American Medico-Psy- WOODROW WILSON FOUNDA- TIÓN, a fund created by popular sub-chological Association, and in 1921 was scription in recognition and commemora- made president of the American Medical tion of the national and international services of Woodrow Wilson, ex-President of the United States, the purpose being to use the income in rewarding and encouraging meritorious service rendered by either individuals or groups to the causes of democracy, public welfare, lib- Association. During the World War he was in charge of the organization of the medical service in connection with the draft. Named First Assistant Postmaster-General in April, 1921, succeeding to the Postmaster-Generalship in President Harding's Cabinet March, 1922.
Y YAP TREATY, signed at Washington, Feb. 11, 1922, between the United States and Japan, with regard to the rights of the two governments and their respective nationals in the former German islands of the north Pacific Ocean, particularly the island of Yap. By this treaty (ratified by the Senate, March 1, 1922) the United States consents to the mandate conferred upon Japan under authority of the League of Nations in March, 1921, reserving to itself and its nationals all such rights in general as would belong to it if a member of the league. The United States and its nationals are given unlimited access to Yap in all that relates to the operation of the Yap-Guam cable or any other cable which it may lay there; and no supervision over cable or radio operations in the island shall be exercised by Japan. By the terms of the mandate, no fortifications or military bases are permitted to be held or constructed in the islands.
A Children's Bureau, was born at Grand Island, Nebraska, November 17, 1878.
She was graduated from Grand Island College (Ph. B.) in 1898, later studying history, philosophy, constitutional law, and political science at the Universities of Nebraska and Chicago. In 1917-18 she was director of the Child Labor Division of the Children's Bureau and was in charge of the administration of the first Federal Child Labor Law. She represented the Children's Bureau in connection with the organization of the first International Labor Conference and was afterward secretary of the Child- 1919. In August, 1921, she was appoint- 1919. In August, 1921, she was appointed head of the Children's Bureau, and in 1922 was named American representative on the League of Nations advisory committee for the suppression of the traffic in women and children. Author:
The Immigrant and the Community.
ABDUL MEDJID EFFENDI.
CALIPHATE: OTTOMAN CALIPHS.) (See ACCIDENTS IN U. S. The United States has an unfortunate record of accidents by which numbers of its people are annually injured, maimed, or killed.
The rush and reckless disregard of human life which are commonly associated with American conditions have, human life which are commonly associhowever, within the last few years been met by a constantly growing moral pro- however, within the last few years been test. In addition to state and federal safety methods in industry, transportation, etc., there has been inaugurated a tion, etc., there has been inaugurated a conscience of the American people to the duty of reasonable care and caution in the preservation of human life. Such organizations as the National Safety Council, with its numerous local councils work in bringing home to Americans the facts of the accident record and in orfacts of the accident record and in ortion, while local movements to instruct the young in the fundamentals of selfpreservation have been started in connection with the public schools or public playgrounds in Statistics show that something has been a number of cities. accomplished, but the frequency of acci- Statistics show that something has been be one of the outstanding problems of the nation. The latest complete statistics available show that for the year 1920 there were recorded 75,983 fatal accidents in the United States. The accident death-rate was 71.4 per 100,000, a slight decrease from 1919 and a considerable decrease as compared with 1911, when the accident death-rate was 84.6 per 100,000. was an increase of over 400 per cent Automobile Accidents. - In these there during the decade 1911-1920. The num- was an increase of over 400 per cent ber of fatal accidents rose from 2,061 in 1911 to 11,067 in 1920, or, in other words, ber of fatal accidents rose from 2,061 in the death-rate per 100,000 population rose from 2.2 in 1911 to 10.4 in 1920. In the figures for 1921 and 1922 showed the ports from 150 cities of over 50,000 inhabitants indicated a total of over 12,000 deaths by automobile accidents less to be remembered that the number of motor vehicles in the United States increased enormously during the years covered by the the above figures, so that even while the number of accidents has motor vehicles has decreased. Thus for increased, the number per thousand twenty-four death-registration states the average number of deaths to each 10,000 in comparison with 20.4 in 1915.
Railroad Accidents. - Since 1888 a conoccurring on American railways, and the figures show a decided decrease in the occurring on American railways, and the 1921 there were 5,996 persons killed and 120,685 injured in railroad accidents, a of killed and of almost 48,000 in the reduction of almost 1,000 in the number number of injured as compared with the year preceding, while the number of killed in the years 1904 to 1917 was almost reg the number of injured was commonly around 200,000. The improvement deregularly in excess of 10,000 and almost regularly in excess of 10,000 and there has been of course a very great increase in railroad traffic in the more rives further emphasis from the fact that to improving safety devices and to the widespread safety movement. The only class of persons in which fatalities widespread safety movement. The only showed an increase in 1921 was that of to be on railroad property at the time of the accident. 24.1 per cent of the railroad fatalities in 1921 were among railto be on railroad property at the time of the accident. 24.1 per cent of the railroad fatalities in 1921 were among rail- ACQUIRED CHARACTERS Industrial Accidents. - Under this head are grouped all injuries received in occupations, including not only what are commonly termed accidents, but also certain occupational diseases acquired in harmful industrial processes and leading to incapacity or death. Statistics are both incomplete and overlapping, but a summary of state reports published by the U. S. Department of Labor in 1922 gives the number of fatal industrial accidents in the United States for 1921 as 9,224 and the number of non-fatal accidents as 1,317,000. These figures are lower than those for any of the four years preceding, but it is pointed out by the Department that the decrease is due in part at least to reduced industrial activity in the year in question. Progress in the reduction of industrial hazard has not been marked or satisfactory. Machinery accidents in 1920 were 35 per cent more numerous than in 1911, and the death-rate per 100,000 population had also risen from 2.1 to 2.5. (See SAFETY ENGINEERING, Vol. VIII.)
Comparisons with statistics of other countries show the accident death-rate in the United States to be alarmingly high and abnormal. It is almost double that of England and Wales, not alone where a higher rate might be expected, but in almost every field of life. The death-rate on railroads is four times as high; the automobile death-rate more than twice as high; the death-rate from accidents with firearms eight times as high. Even falls and burns and drownings seem to indicate almost abnormal carelessness on the part of Americans as compared with other peoples.