Home › T › Trans

Trans

Middlesex Nat. Hist. Soc., 1889.

ANCIENT IRISH RED DEER.

The weight of the antlers in a full-grown stag varies, according to their size and massiveness, from 10 or 12 to 15 lb. In RED DEER] Hungary they attain to and sometimes even exceed 20 lb.

On the subject of abnormal antlers, several pages might be written. One is accustomed to see from time to time some very curious and fantastic growths, usually the result of injury during the time the growing horns are in a sensitive condition, although this does not apply to a switchhorn-a long tapering horn with only one tine, namely the brow tine. The most remarkable of all are those which have but one horn, and those in which a superhorns which have been shed. Hinds have been observed chewing the horns of a stag while lying down, and marks of teeth have been noticed on the horns of stags killed late in the season in Uist. stalker knows, varies in different forests; The character of deer-heads, as every there are usually most points where there is most wood or good winter feeding and shelter. In hill deer, heads go on improving up to the age of twelve or fourteen years; they come to maturity sooner. The heads on low ground, with more forcing food, numera one, thre THE CHALLENGE. ry horn has grown up. Stags with e, and four horns have been red heads of all these varieties will gured in The Field of March ported; an be found fi 10th, 1894.

Cast Horns. can find and sell -What becomes of the old stion which is often asked. horns is a queak-keepers pick up all they Foresters and patthem as perquisites to the Cutlers for knife-handles; many fall in outof-the-way places, amongst heather and discovered; and the bracken, and are never deer themselves help to get rid of a great many by chewing and eating them. This last fact has been abundantly proved by the testimony of credible witnesses (see The Field, December 4th, 1886). Fallow deer, as well as red deer, have a similar propensity and liking, apparently for the saline flavour of the cast horn. Doubtless the habit is common to all deer, and is not confined to then remain about the same for some years, after which they gradually lose beam, get smoother from the blood-vessels being no longer so vigorous, the points taper more and are shorter, till finally the head dwindles to half its former size. On this subject see the remarks of Lord Lovat in the chapter on "Deer-Stalking" in the Badminton Library, and the articles by Mr. A. Gordon Cameron on "Deer and Stalking" "-pub- "Notes from an Island Forest" lished in The Field of January, 1891. in The Field of January, 1891.

Hornless Stags are not unknown, especially in the German forests. By this expression is meant, not stags which have once carried antlers and have shed them, but stags which have never possessed any.

In the Highlands they are termed hummel stags; to the German foresters they are known as Plattköpfe (flat-heads) or Mönche (monks), in allusion to the bald head or tonsure. A long and interesting article on this subject by Herr Ludwig Beckmann, accompanied by illustrations, appeared in The Field of April 9th, 1887; supplementary remarks by the present writer, in The Zoologist, 1887, p. 381.

Haviers, or stags which have been gelded when young, have no horns, as is well known, and in the early part of the stalking season, when seen through a glass, might be mistaken for hummels; but as the season advances, the necks of the latter swell, and (except in the matter of horns) they assume [RED DEER which latter contain, besides the parent worms, multitudes of free embryos. If the numbers be not excessive, a natural cure, according to Professor Spencer Cobbold, may occur by calcareous degeneration. We have notes of the prevalence of this disease at different times at Welbeck Park; Lyme Park, Stockport; Hoar Cross Park, Burtonon-Trent; Temple Newsham Park, Yorkshire; and of the remedies tried. Those recommended from experience are burning of the pasture (carried out as in heatherburning on grouse moors) and the adance RED DEER. all the characteristics, both in appearand behaviour, of ordinary stags, and are thus easily distinguished from haviers.

The effects of castration on the growth of antlers is a very curious subject, and has been dealt with in considerable detail by Dr. G. H. Fowler in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1894 (pp. 485-494), with illustrations.

Deer Leaps. For deer leaps see an article by the present writer in Recreations of a Naturalist, 1906, pp. 63-73.

Diseases and Parasites. - Parasitic lung disease from nematodes is a widespread affection, and its degree of virulence in particular years is dependent upon the conditions that are favourable or otherwise to the reproduction of the parasites. Excessive moisture and a mild winter are the most favouring conditions, the parasitic worms being Strongylus micrurus, S. filaria, and S. rufescens. The larvæ get taken up with the food and gain access to the lungs, where their presence causes the formation of miliary tubercles and small tumours, ministering of vegetable charcoal, by giving beans which are damped in order to mak the powdered charcoal adhere to them. e er is Park, ami, Brit. 9; and The alting in the fa herd of experiment in Cilli found, proved ffering, not from An outbreak of anthrax amongst de occasionally reported, as at Ickworth Suffolk, in the summer (June and of 1889 (see the report of Dr. Ad d July) Med. Journ., October 12th, 1880 Field, October 26th, 1889), res loss of over 450 deer out of between 600 and 700. But a herd of mortem examination and careful postother animals with the bac that the deer were su anthrax, as supposed, out from rabies, as did the deer in Richmond Park in 1886-87 (see the Parliament ary Reports by Chief Inspector Cope and Professor Victor (see the ary Reports by Chief Horsley, published in 1888, and a Report to the Richmond Local Authority by Mr.

Lupton, V.S.). In an instructive article on the parasites of deer (The Field, Sep- 1 tember 12th, 1896), Mr. P. H. Grimshaw has given an account of several dipterous insects prejudicial to deer, and describes the various stages or transformations through REINDEER] which they pass, and the characteristic features by which they may be recognised.

For further information the reader may refer to Scrope's Days of Deer Stalking, Shirley's English Deer Parks, Collyns' Chase of the Wild Red Deer, Fortescue's Stag-Hunting on Exmoor, Grimble's Deer Stalking and Deer Forests of Scotland, Buxton's Short Stalks, Baillie Grohman's Sport in the Alps, and Millais' recently published British Deer and their Horns. [See also DEER STALKING and HUNT- ING.] J. E. HARTING.

REINDEER. - In the Old World the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) inhabits the most northerly regions of Europe and Asia, from Spitsbergen on the west to the furthest boundaries of Eastern Siberia, where they are found as far south as the sixtieth parallel.

In Novaia Zemlia they exist in considerable numbers, and some years ago they were re-introduced into Iceland. They abound also in the forests of the Government of Kazan in European Russia, where they are preserved and shot by the Czar and his friends in winter battues. Formerly they were more abundant in a wild state in Scandinavia than at present, but the invention of breech-loading rifles, combined with the shortness of the close time, has much reduced their ranks. Now, however, since the extension of the close season, it is to be hoped they will increase in numbers. In Norway they are not found south of latitude 60, and south of 62 in Sweden, nor north of 63 in either country in a wild state, owing to the presence of the Lapps with their tame herds: if any are met with, they are mostly individuals which have strayed from the tame herds. Norway is preferable to Sweden for the sport of reindeer-hunting. The best places are on the Dovre- Fjeld, in the regions around Sne-Hatten, where good camping-ground can be found up to about 4,000 feet; the neighbourhood of Drivstuen - - Kongsvold-Hjærkin, and Fogstuen, the Lesje and Lom Fjelds, Sundal and Romsdal Fjelds; Rundane and the Fille Fjeld, and certain districts near Hardanger and Nord Fjords. They used to be found on the Fjelds of Ovre-Rendal and the Sölen-Tinderne near Sölen Söen, and on the west side of Faemund Söen, but are becoming scarcer there every year.

Excellent camping-ground under 3,000 feet is found at the various sæters on Aur Söen and Gaut-Söen, a day's journey for pack-horses; to the north and north-east of Lesje, Holsæt, Holaker, Molmen, &c., and also on the other side of the valley to the south and south-west.

Characteristics. The hoofs are peculiar from the fact of their being broad and rounded, and in having the small lateral pair much larger than is the case with other deer; these are most useful to the animals when traversing the snowy slopes and descending steep hills at full speed. At such a time the clicking together of the inner sides of hundreds of broad cloven hoofs is a most singular and astonishing sound to hear.

The prevailing colour is mouse-grey tinged with brown, which becomes lighter towards winter, with white under, and at the sides of the belly. The bucks have a Milla's KEINDEER HEAD. thick fringe under the throat and neck at this time. to The antlers, which are common both sexes, are cast in March or early April, the females usually a little later: they are generally clear of the velvet by about the middle of September.

The antlers of the female, being much shorter and slenderer, are worth nothing as trophies. Those of the bucks, however, run to a considerable size, though there is great variation in them, no two being exactly alike. The two finest pairs of Norwegian antlers I ever saw had 54 and 47 points respectively. The largest buck I killed in Norway had antlers of the following dimensions: the longest, 47 inches, straight across from point to point; greatest length from top point to end of snow-shovel, following inside curve, 66½ inches, same from top point to base of antler, 55 inches along inside curve; greatest width of palmation, 44 inches; circumference above burr, 6½ inches; widest inside diameter, 42½ inches; between tips, 34 inches; number of points, 26; length of skull, 17 inches. I possess another head, not so large or broad, which has 44 points, of which 18 are on the two snow-shovels, or snow-scrapers.

Size and Weight.-A full-grown buck in first-rate condition should weigh from 350 to 400 lb., sometimes as much as 450, or even more, whole; he would stand at from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches at the withers. The does seldom weigh more than 270 lb., rarely standing higher than 3 feet 7 inches or 3 feet 8 inches.

Rutting Season. The rutting season commences about the middle of September, A.

B.

A, HOOFS OF 10-YR.-OLD REINDEER.

B, HOOF OF 8-VR.-OLD RED DEER.

A. when severe fights take place for the mastery among the more powerful males.

They make a grunting roar of defiance at this time, and climb up to the tops of the highest hills. The fawns are born about May, the period of gestation being eight months; they are of a light brown colour for some six months.

Habits. In summer the reindeer retire high up the mountains amongst the snow fjelds to escape the attacks of the reindeer gadfly, the female of which deposits her eggs in the reindeer's back, where they hatch, the larvæ remaining until the following summer, when they work out. The skins of animals thus attacked are so full of blisters and holes that they are of little value. Another biting fly deposits her eggs in the nostrils, where they become maggots, causing the animal great distress before expulsion.

Reindeer are capable of great endurance, and can swim immense distances in the coldest water; they are also very inquisitive, often turning round to gaze for several seconds even after being shot at. Neither their sight nor hearing is on a par with their sense of smell, which is unusually acute; they generally feed up-wind, which accounts [REINDEER for some fjelds being perfectly denuded of deer should a particular wind prevail for a long period.

Food. In summer, different kinds of Ranunculus, especially R. glacialis, and the various coarse grasses, herbs, mosses, and lichens found on the fjelds form their diet; also Anemone vernalis, and the many kinds of dwarf willow growing about the snowline, as Salix glauca, S. polaris, S. lanata, S. herbacea, &c.; also Lichen rangiferinus, upon which reindeer feed both winter and summer. This latter, with various. willow and birch buds, forms in winter their principal food. During a lemming migration they crush hundreds with their hoofs and will devour the vegetable matter in the stomachs and entrails, having by some means. discovered that the herbaceous contents are good for food.

Do Precautions to be observed in Stalking. -Reindeer are the wildest and most unsettled animals to stalk, and ever on the look-out. The sound of a distant waterfall, or of stones and grit rattling down a cliff, is sufficient to start them off, demoralising them for hours, thus spoiling a good stalk which promised to be successful; great care and caution are therefore absolutely necessary. Inspect frequently with telescope or field-glasses all the mountain sides, plains, and large snow-fields, distant or near. not loiter too long near a herd if you cannot approach within shot, for fear that eddying gusts of wind may proclaim your presence, but retire to a safe distance to watch, and when you do get a chance, take advantage of it in your best style, and as quickly as possible according to circumstances. Never shoot at deer lying on the ground or snow, unless close above them; it is best to wait until they rise. Be careful to calculate distances, which are most deceptive on the fjelds, especially on the snow braes. Take care before descending very steep, snowy ravines to ascertain if the snow be hard or soft; launch a rounded boulder on the surface and watch its progress. If the snow is soft, the stone will make a small furrow and glide gradually down to the bottom, and the descent is safe, but if it descends in skips and bounds, it is too dangerous to attempt, if very steep. Be careful, if you do so, to balance yourself properly; take out your cartridges, keep the butt-end of your rifle stock in the snow to steady you and act as a brake, and look out that there is not a precipice at the bottom.

Have your cartridges ready to load again quickly, in case you come suddenly on a solitary buck round a corner. Do not press a wounded buck too hard, unless you have a fast, powerful reindeer hound with you, which you can let slip, but keep him REVOLVERS] in sight and let him lie down; then stalk him up-wind very cautiously.

A good reindeer-dog is usually taken in harness to find the game, in which case you have two followers, the second holding the dog whilst you are stalking the quarry with the hunter, unless you prefer and are competent to stalk without him, in which case one man is sufficient. A 450 Express, with half expanding bullet, is quite large enough.

A ridgepole-tent, the size according to requirements, made of strong material, with a horse-cloth inner lining, is preferable to a bell tent. The guy rope pegs should be pointed with iron; the others need not.

Plenty of warm clothing is required, in the event of remaining late in the season; snow often falls heavily in August. Thick woollen gloves and scarf should be taken when hunting the higher snow fjelds.

A license is required for reindeer-hunting in Norway, price 200 kroner (£11).

The Finland and Spitzbergen reindeer have been separated as distinct races, and there are other races in northern Asia.

Some, although not all, of the North American representatives of the reindeer are mentioned in the article CARIBOU.

GERARD FERRAND.

REVOLVERS.-The revolver, in its present form, is not the result of the invention of any one man, although Col. Colt was the first to make it a practical weapon; but rather the result of a long series of evolutions from the old single barrel pistol.

When the pistol was first made it was soon found that there was need of a way to fire several shots in rapid succession, long before such a pressing need was felt in the rifle. The pistol is only used, as a rule, at close quarters; so if the first shot is a miss there is no time to re-load to take another shot. Double barrelled pistols and then three, four, or more barrelled ones were in consequence made, but in the early stages these barrels were all made of the full length of the pistol, and each barrel loaded as a separate pistol. The double barrelled had a lock for each barrel, the three barrelled were often made with the barrels one below the other (the double barrels being either horizontal, or more rarely vertical to each other). When more than three barrels were used, they were generally grouped in a cluster round a solid core, never, or hardly ever, with a centre barrel surrounded by others, as this would present a mechanical difficulty in firing the centre one.

I remember, some years ago, seeing a French pin fire revolver which fired twelve shots. The chambers in the cylinder seemed in a double tier, with two barrels, one for the inner circle and the other for VOL. IV the outer circle, but I did not have a chance to examine it closely as to the construction.

In order to fire the various barrels of the pistol, one of the earliest forms had a firing pin, which was put opposite the cap of each barrel in succession (this was not possible in the wheel and flink lock days). Another form was to have the hammer come opposite each barrel in turn, first moved by hand, and later by mechanism, automatically; this form was used in flint locks, and is retained in some modern pistols and multi-barrelled rifles.

The first actual revolver had the barrels revolve so as to come opposite the hammer in turn. This was found mechanically REVOLVER SHOOTING. weak, SO the revolving cylinder with chambers coming opposite a barrel common to all in turn was evolved, and this, with modifications, is the form of all modern revolvers.

The reason the original idea of a set of barrels was abandoned for a cylinder with chambers opening on to a barrel common to all is the following:- At the first glance it would be thought that the former plan is the best. A barrel complete in itself shoots not only harder owing to there being no escape of gas, such as unavoidably takes place between the barrel and cylinder of the later plan), but more accurately (as there is no joint between the cylinder and barrel). Nevertheless, the cylinder revolver is not only lighter, owing to there being only one barrel instead of several, each the whole length of the pistol, but it can shoot much more accurately. At the same time, each barrel of the "pepper box," as the old revolving barrel pistol was called, shot individually better and more accurately.

The reason of this seeming paradox is as follows:- Any one who has shot, or regulated, a double barrelled rifle knows how difficult it is to get the two barrels to shoot parallel, both horizontally and vertically, to each other; each barrel may shoot perfectly in itself, but, when joined together, one barrel will be found to shoot higher than the other, or they will shoot across or away from each [REVOLVERS each cylinder, and the barrel of the revolver, the bore of the cylinder, and the bore of the barrel being "trued" automatically as they come in place. Also the Webley- Fosbery revolver has been invented, the recoil of the act of firing revolving the cylinder and cocking the revolver.

Such revolvers are, in my opinion, preferable to any automatic pistol, which are not only dangerous to handle, but have too small a calibre to be of sufficient "stopping power" when they hit a man.

Also they cannot be shot with light charges for practice, as a heavy recoil is needed to operate their mechanism.

THE UNIVERSITY MATCH AT BISLEY. other. Fixing the two barrels mechanically parallel to each other is of no use, as, there being more resistance to the recoil where the barrels touch each other, they shoot away from each other (or apart), and they can only be regulated by hand at great expense and trouble. If this difficulty is found in double barrels, it is infinitely increased as the number of barrels is increased. In fact I do not think any amount of regulating can make four or more barrels shoot together.

For this reason the revolving cylinder has been almost universally adopted, in spite of the varying escape of gas inevitable, and of the fact that the chamber occasionally does not come opposite the barrel, owing to fouling or dirt getting into the action. If there is an extra escape of gas at a shot, it makes that shot weaker, and consequently low, and, if the chamber does not quite come round far enough, a shaving is taken off a side of the bullet, causing irregular flight and an inaccurate shot. Messrs. Smith and Wesson have patented and brought out a means of effecting absolute alignment of [Photograph by Sport and General.

They cannot be drawn and fired with one hand, as they need two hands for cocking, putting to safety, &c.

The new revolvers made to shoot smokeless powder are now made to load by pushing the cylinder to one side instead of the pistol "breaking down" like a double barrel shot-gun does for loading.

This new action is called the "solid frame," the barrel being a fixture with the action a necessity for safety with the greater chamber pressure of the smokeless powders.

A revolver with these improvements is, in my opinion, superior to any repeating pistol, as it balances properly, which no repeating pistol I have seen does, and would be of much more compact shape. Also the stock should be more in line with the barrel (like the duelling pistol), instead of below it, as so many revolvers are made, especially those of the "Bull Dog" pattern.

The way revolver-shooting is practised in the Western States of America is the only real way to learn to shoot a revolver. In this country revolver-shooting is practised as REVOLVERS] a sort of game, like croquet, lawn tennis, or golf.

The only useful practice is rapid shooting and a moving series of competitions, as a revolver is only used for war or selfdefence at extremely short range and in very rapid firing. There are many enthusiasts who make good scores at small stationary bull's eyes, and are constantly improving at that sort of skill, who could not hit even the outer edge of the target if called on to take a snap-shot from either on foot or horseback. In all shooting competitions, as in fact in all competitions which were originally intended to be practised for some useful THE WEBLEY-FOSBERY AUTOMATIC REVOLVER.

The barrel and cylinder, separate from the butt, are mounted upon a recoiling frame. The rearward motion caused by the recoil serves to put the hammer at full cock, at the same time compressing a spring which, by reverse action, returns the barrel and cylinder to their original position. On an extension of the trigger guard is a stud which fits into the V-shaped grooves of the cylinder. As the cylinder moves backwards during the recoil, the grooves sliding on the fixed stud cause it to make a slight rotary motion, and as it is pushed forward again a further and similar motion is made; the cylinder has then revolved sufficiently to bring the next cartridge cylind opposite the hammer. purpose, there is a constant and seemingly inevitable tendency to drift into unpractical lines, and a development in just that direction which is useless for all practical purposes. In racing it gets into breeding racing "machines" which cannot carry a child's weight; in pigeon-shooting, clay bird shooting, and rifle-shooting, it only teaches a knack for those particular sports, which is of no use in the field. In the same way revolver shooting at stationary targets spoils a man's handling of a revolver.

If I had to train a man to shoot a revolver for practical use, I would rather take one with good eyesight and a steady hand, who had never fired a revolver before, than some of our crack revolver prize winners.

The former may learn to shoot properly; the latter never. I consider Rapid firing, six shots in 12 seconds, practical revolver competition, but unfortunately very few men, and those mostly Frenchmen, enter for it, stationary targets being more generally preferred.

As revolver shooting clubs have to study the likes and dislikes of their patrons, it seems inevitable that revolver shooting will have to continue on the same old unpractical lines of deliberate shooting at stationary targets.

WALTER WINANS.

RHINOCEROS. - SOUTH AFRICA.

Habitat. Some forty years ago the two species of African rhinoceros were common in the country lying between the foothills of the Drakensberg Range in the Eastern Transvaal and the Libombo Mountains.

The range of the black or prehensile-lipped species (Rhinoceros bicornis) extended through the Drakensberg foothills, the thorn thickets between the Oliphants, Letaba, and Limpopo, and the Sabi and Crocodile Rivers. At the present day a few only linger in the Matamiri Bush near the Sabi Poort in the Libombo Range, and in the dense forests on the eastern slopes of the Libombo in the neighbourhood of the Singwetsi River. a In South Africa the square-mouthed or white species (so called from Boer "wirthinaster." It is of a dull brownblack colour) (R. simus) was common enough in the open bush country along the courses of the Malumbakwane and other south-easterly flowing tributaries of the Crocodile River, and in the neighbourhood of the Sabi, but since 1885 I have heard of no authenticated instance of its having been seen at all in those parts. A few specimens of this "white" species undoubtedly roamed also about the slopes of the Libombo, for in 1893 I found two skulls of these animals near the Rooi Rand.

Shooting. - Rhinoceroses are perhaps the most easily killed of all great game.

A bullet from an ordinary "sporting Martini" will drop them instantly either with the neck or head shot. In the former case the spot to be aimed for is about half-way along and five inches above an imaginary line drawn along the middle of the neck from head to shoulder, while for the head shot the bullet must enter about three inches in front of the base of the ear. The latter is a certainty if the beast is standing motionless, but they frequently shift their heads about uneasily, which makes the shot difficult. The shoulder shot should not be attempted unless one is carrying a large-bore rifle. The beast succumbs quickly if shot through both lungs; if through one it will often spin rapidly round, kicking up the hind legs; uttering loud vicious snorts, and generally behaving in a manner which is very trying to the nerves of a tiro. In fact, though I do not believe the rhinoceros to be so dangerous a beast as he is often represented, yet his behaviour on most occasions when wounded, his blind, furious C2 charges, and loud snorts, are likely to cause considerable embarrassment to any one whose acquaintance with these animals is small. If shot through one lung only, a rhinoceros of either species will travel till doomsday, even though throwing blood copiously from mouth and nose.

Stalking. I do not consider a rhinoceros at all an easy beast to stalk, for it is almost invariably accompanied by "rhinoceros-birds" which follow it for the sake of the parasites which infest its hide, and give immediate warning of the sportsman's approach. When unaccompanied by birds, however, a rhinoceros is a piggishly stupid beast, of very little intelligence, and will permit of a very near approach-up-wind, #aldwell. 1897 WHITE RHINOCEROS. of course, for if the attempt were made down-wind he would be away before one was within half a mile of him, so extraordinary is his sense of smell. When roused by the rhinoceros-birds, he jumps up and makes off at once, up-wind, without asking questions; when alarmed wounded, he often starts off down-wind, but very soon comes round into the wind again, and so continues. 01 Habits. Rhinoceroses drink about an hour after sundown, often going and returning great distances; they seldom feed anywhere near their drinking places, but strike a bee-line through the forest for several miles before commencing. They then feed throughout the night, making their way again at earliest dawn to the water, where they drink and wallow, and afterwards retire to their mid-day retreat, so that they are seldom to be found moving about after IO A.M. During the rains, how ever, the animals have been seen by the writer feeding at mid-day.

The dung of the prehensile-lipped rhino- [RHINOCEROS ceros is dark red-brown in colour, full of small chips of wood, sometimes taking a greenish tinge from the young sprouts upon which the beast has fed; it is deposited in a heap under a tree, or in a hollow scooped out by the beast's horn and nose. These heaps are visited regularly on subsequent occasions, and the rhinoceros scatters the dung about in all directions, ploughing up great furrows in the ground with its horn.

Similar furrows, semicircular in shape, and on alternate sides, are often made by rhinoceroses as they walk through the bush, the anterior portion of the horn frequently being thereby much worn down. When disturbed, they move away at a slinging trot, but if alarmed suddenly, or closely pursued, they break into a quick gallop, a pace which in rough country gives a horse all he can do to hold his own, and which the rhinoceros can keep up for a great distance. They are extremely active beasts in rough hill country, clambering un and down the most precipitous places as expeditiously as elephants. Lambeth Public Libraries The aforesaid white rhinoceros is as easily killed as his smaller brother; but, though often spoken of as an inoffensive beast, is quite as prone to charge.

The square-mouthed rhinoceros is essentially a grass-feeder, hence its range is far more limited than that of the black, which finds subsistence over a vast extent of rough hill country covered with thorny bush, but where no grass is found.

In appearance, the square-mouthed rhinoceros is a far more ungainly beast than his congener. His bulk is enormous, and the huge head seems altogether out of proportion, and he has been known to attain a height of 6 feet 3 inches at the shoulder.

His spoor is considerably larger than that of the black species; that of the forefoot of a bull of the latter, in damp sand, measures about 27 inches in circumference, while that of the white rhinoceros is 36 inches; and the difference in size between the spoor of the front and hind feet of the white rhinoceros is considerably less than between those of the black, while the hind feet leave a rounder spoor than those of the latter, which tend to an oval. Its habits are in some respects very similar to those of the black species: it feeds in the evening after visiting the water, and throughout the night and early morning, drinking again before lying up for the day.

Its sight is equally dull, and its senses of hearing and smell as singularly acute. But it moves more sluggishly, and lacks the quick, nervous actions of the other. When alarmed, however, it can get away with surprising speed, at a swift trot, and only RHINOCEROS] breaks into a gallop if closely pursued. It is said that the white rhinoceros cannot travel with a broken hind leg, and this may be the case, but the writer has seen a black rhinoceros cow, with her leg broken above the knee, go at a pace that kept himself and his gun-carrier at a sharp run for over a mile to keep up with her; both beasts, however, will travel for over two miles without a halt with a broken shoulder. Rhinoceroses are difficult to stop when charging, for, owing to the shortness of their legs, there is little chance of putting a bullet into the chest, especially if the grass is at all long.

LIBRARY, BRIXTON, S.W. heavier is required for a quickly moving or especially a charging beast. I consider a good 12-bore double rifle, with 6 or 7 drams of powder and a hardened conical projectile of 24 oz., quite heavy enough to account for any rhinoceros, and have done my best work with this handy weapon.

By far the most certain method of bagging rhinoceroses, and a much more sportsmanlike and satisfactory one than watching for their return to their drinking places, is to be up at dawn, and walk up-wind along the course of any river at which they are accustomed to drink, and about a mile from it; water RHINOCEROS. [From a drawing by E. G. Caldwell.

In the case of the white species, the spine must be carried, and as soon as the spoor can be reached at the junction of the neck is cut the beast can be followed up. Even and shoulder, as he carries his head very if disturbed once or twice, he will not go low; but the black holds it high and m more than about two miles before halting jauntily. The square-mouthed species again, when he will usually offer a broaddoes not scatter its dung about, as is is side shot; but, if hunted about much, he is the custom of the prehensile-lipped, nor apt to become very petulant. If, on followdoes it frequently revisit these spots. ing a beast up, it is found that he has re- The former falls quickly to a bullet through treated into long grass or reeds, the hunter the heart or both lungs, usually falling on should post himself near the spot at which its side, and not on its knees, as the other the rhinoceros entered the cover, a little rhinoceros almost invariably does. The to one side, and of course below wind, while shot for the neck should be about 3 or 4 the native attendants can be sent round in inches lower than in the case of the black a wide circle above wind. The rhinoceros will soon move, and though there is a chance of his charging up-wind, he is far more likely to make his way out of the cover at the spot where he entered it, giving the hunter an easy shot. If possible, the latter should reserve his fire till the rhinoceros is broadside or a little past him. If the rhinoceros runs dead away from the rifle, unless Weapon and Ammunition. - I have found a Metford rifle of '461 bore, carrying a 540 or 570 gr. hardened projectile, excellent for rhinoceroses, but these beasts take a lot of stopping at times, so that, although this is a perfect weapon for a head or neck shot when the beast is quiescent, something the weapon be a heavy one, it is best to let him go, and follow up again leisurely, when he will surely be found again inside of two miles, probably halting under a tree, listening intently, and standing broadside at right angles to his spoor.

F. VAUGHAN KIRBY.

The Lado Enclave. - About the time that it was supposed to be on the verge of ex termination, the white rhinoceros was discovered by Major Gibbons to be living in the Lado Enclave, on the Equator, whence its range was subsequently found to extend into the southern part of the Bahr-el- Ghazal. As a matter of fact, its existence on the Equator had been long previously hinted at, since horns were brought from the Lake Chad district by the explorers Denham and Clapperton early in the nineteenth century; and these commodities had for centuries been traded by the Arabs from the equatorial provinces of the Sudan. On the evidence of a skull presented by Major P. H. G. Powell-Cotton to the British Museum, I gave the name of R. simus cottoni to the Lado white rhinoceros, which differs from the southern by the wider front of the skull, and apparently also by the nature of the sculpture of the skin. These rhinoceroses appear to abound in the equatorial jungles, and a number of specimens were procured during the Roosevelt pedition. ex- Not infrequently the second horn of the white rhinoceros forms a mere knob; and it has been suggested that such practically one-horned examples gave rise to the legend of the unicorn.

It may be mentioned in this place that both species of African rhinoceroses differ from their Asiatic relatives in the absence of folds in the skin, and likewise in the lack of incisor teeth in the front of their jaws.

In consequence of this, the African species fight solely with their horns, whereas Asiatic rhinoceroses, as mentioned in Colonel Pollok's article, attack with their lower tusks.

R. LYDEKKER.

SOMALILAND.-The common twohorned "black" rhinoceros (R. bicornis), which is very widely distributed over Africa, and seems to be in no immediate danger of becoming extinct, exists in moderate numbers, though nowhere so plentifully as in Equatorial Africa, in suitable country in parts of the Somali plateau, in the bushcovered wilderness of Ogaden, on the Webbe Shabeyli river, and in the Galla country beyond. In the hinterland of the North Somali Coast it has not been found to exist much nearer to the sea than a [RHINOCEROS hundred and fifty to two hundred miles.

Rhinoceroses may come nearer to the coast in the country to the east towards Cape Guardafui.

The tracks are best found by pursuing the course of a river as described in the foregoing article. The ground is generally too broken for riding, so the sportsman must proceed on foot, and should be accompanied by a guide, a couple of carriers, and perhaps a camel, for the head and shields of a rhinoceros make a full load.

The fresh tracks of a good bull having been found those of a cow or young one would generally be of little interest to the sportsman-they are not difficult to follow, the hard toes, at least, leaving a well-defined mark. The trail, after emerging from the last pool visited, will strike away from the river at right angles, and lead straight through the bush to the distant feeding ground. The trail, leading up the thorny bush-choked ravines and broken ground which form the approaches to the river-beds, involves a great deal of walking, and with the sun rising higher and getting hotter every moment, it is tiring work. The trail will probably after some time begin to wind about a good deal among thorn trees; here and there it will become a maze of tracks in one place, difficult to unravel, where the rhinoceros has lingered to feed about. By about eleven o'clock he will probably have stopped feeding and halted to rest, and will, if approached up the wind, be first seen standing dozing under a thorn bush or lying down. a The writer has tried, with some success, watching over water in the dry season, form ing a "zeriba" with an opening commanding the pool. The construction of such shelter is of importance, because a rhino will charge through brushwood easily.

A strong thorn-tree should be chosen, with a thick stem, which should form the back of the shelter. The hanging branches may be pulled down in front and at the sides as a screen, and it is an advantage to have it so situated that the ground falls away steeply in front to the pool. over- Somalis kill the rhinoceros with the Midgan bow and poisoned arrows. The hide is valuable for shields, as many as from fifteen to twenty being cut from the skin of a single bull. The flesh is fairly eatable and makes good soup.

As the track may have to be followed for hours, by the time the hide has been removed-which is done in large slabs, these having been previously marked out on the body-and the return journey to camp accomplished, it may be already sunset; so it is advisable, when starting on such a hunt, RHINOCEROS] PAIR OF RHINOCEROS MEDITATING A CHARGE.

A RHINOCEROS IN THE ACT OF CHARGING.

TELEPHOTOGRAPH OF RHINOCEROS ABOUT TO CHARGE. THE BIRDS ARE STILL ON THEIR BACKS. CHARGING RHINOCEROS TAKEN AT 15 YARDS.

ONE OF A PAIR CHARGING.

CHARGING RHINOCEROS TURNED BY A SHOT. [Photographs by A. Radclyffe Dugmore. to take an attendant with water and food.

A good plan, after killing one or more rhinos, if water can be found not far off, is to send for the caravan and camp by the carcases, when they can be cut up at leisure. Among Somalis, who, about #dwell 1297 BLACK OR TWO-HORNED RHINOCEROS. food, are even more fastidious than other Mohammedan races, most of the meat is wasted.

A good pair of horns will measure about 20 inches for the front and 6 for the back horn. The skin of the head is very difficult to remove without damage at the point where it fits over the lumps which form the support to the horns. The horns themselves come off in one piece with the skin.

H. G. C. SWAYNE.

INDIA. In British India there are three species of rhinoceros. In Assam and the Duars occurs the great Indian species (Rhinoceros unicornis or R. indicus), and also the Javan (R. sondaicus). Both these species are one-horned, but there is also the two-horned R. sumatrensis, which extends from Chittagong southwards to the Sundarbans, and is also found in Sumatra and Java, as well as in the Malay Peninsula.

Its skin is as smooth as a buffalo's, but in habits and customs it much resembles the other species of the genus. In the Chittagong race of this rhinoceros the ears are fringed with long hairs. In the great Indian rhinoceros the horn is seldom eighteen inches long, generally a good deal less. The skin is very thick, with a deep fold at the setting on the head, another behind the shoulder, and a third in front of the thighs. There is a pair of large in cisors in each jaw, with a pair of smaller intermediate ones below, and a pair of still smaller outside the upper incisors, the last not always present. The general [RHINOCEROS colour is dusky black. The dimensions of one I killed were as follows. Extreme length of body, 12½ feet; tail 2 feet; height 6 feet 2 inches; horn 14 inches.

I nese animals delight in swamps, lie up in mud holes, and frequent even running rivers.

The Javan rhinoceros (R. sondaicus) I have shot on the left bank of the Brahmapootra river, but never came across it on the right bank, though doubtless it exists there too, as it is a wandering beast. In appearance it somewhat resembles the larger, but the folds are not so pronounced, and the shields are covered with small tubercles.

It is said to be attracted by fire; the Burmese assert that it even devours it.

Although in their wild state I have seen elephants and rhinoceros feeding not far apart, yet these domestic slaves, when in captivity, fear the rhinoceros far more than they do a tiger. I have seen rhinoceros and buffaloes lying down in the same mud hole, with only a few yards between them.

These animals live in such remote localities that they are only disturbed now and then by some enterprising hunter. To find them in fairly open ground, the sportsman must be in their preserves at daybreak, for they soon retire into impenetrable thickets and lie up during the day. They are naturally timid, more anxious to escape than fight, and are far easier to kill than many other wild beasts, notwithstanding their hide. This, whilst on the animal, is easily penetrated, but if removed and dried in the sun, soon becomes very hard. Though the Valdwell INDIAN RHINOCEROS. living hide is anything but impenetrable, to reach a vital spot a bullet has to pass through a mass of blubber, muscle, and bone. To hunt them successfully, large bores, hardened bullets, and fully five or six drachms of powder are requisite. If driven to bay after being wounded, a rhinoceros RIDING] I will charge savagely. He does not use the horn for offensive purposes, but his incisors, which much resemble the tushes of a boar, though far thicker. If one of them can close, he will leave his marks for ever. have seen an elephant's foot cut to the bone.

The horns are but poor trophies, but the Assamese, Chinese, and Tibetans prize them greatly, and will give as much as forty-five rupees per seer (2 lb.) for them. Although many castes of Brahmins, Hindus, and Mawarries eschew all flesh, living on grain only, some of them make an exception in favour of the flesh of this pachyderm. I have been asked to dry the tongues for them, and these they pulverise, bottle, and indulge in a pinch or two if unwell. The Assamese prefer its flesh to all other, and used to follow me about like so many vultures. No sooner was the life of one extinct than they would rush, knife in hand, and not leave a scrap on the skeleton. Even the hide they roast and eat as we do the crackling of pig.

F. T. POLLOK.

RIDING. As this is hardly the place for any attempt to give details, I shall here limit myself to general principles, with the advice to readers, who wish to study the subject thoroughly, to consult the Bibliography at the end of the article. As there are several kinds of riding which widely differ from each other in principles and practice, I shall consider the chief of them separately; but before doing so I wish to advance a plea for tolerance.

We are all so enamoured of our own methods that, naturally, we are prone und'uly to depreciate those of others. Hence the average English hunting man regards a French exponent of l'équitation savante with a self-satisfied air of superiority, if not of contempt, which is fully reciprocated; while a broncho buster, with equally bad reason, would look upon them both duffers. Most men who have hunted much in the Shires know that the fact of a man being a brilliant steeplechase rider is not sufficient to enable him to get into the first flight out hunting, no matter how well he may be mounted. Again, very few of the best Australian steeplechase jockeys can sit a bad buckjumper successfully. as Different Systems of Riding.- The chief systems of riding practised in different parts of the world may be roughly enumerated as follows: (1) Ordinary riding (including riding to hounds); (2) rough riding; (3) high school riding; (4) military riding; and (5) ladies' riding.

General Principles. The chief principle which governs all kinds of good riding is that the rider should as a rule ride by balance, and should reserve his or her powers of grip for those supreme moments when grip is indispensable for security of seat. This maxim is founded on the fact that grip can be obtained only by muscular contraction, and that muscles which continue in a state of contraction become very soon tired. The principle here enunciated has been followed from time immemorial by persons who, although they did not reason it out, recognise the fact that good horsemanship was incompatible with stiffness, which, in the rider, is obtained by muscular contraction. Another great principle is that the rider, when he wants to get the weight back, should do so by the play of the hip joints thus bringing the upper part of the body to the rear-and not by sitting back in the saddle. In fact, one should always sit well forward in the saddle, and, if necessary, lean back. In all kinds of riding the reins should be held fairly rong, so as to allow full freedom to the horse's head and neck without any risk of the rider همه SNAFFLE BIT. being pulled forward. A great number of bad riders have their reins far too short, with the object of holding on by the reins; the result being that they get pulled on to the horse's neck if the animal plays up.

I need hardly say that the attainment of such a position is the usual preliminary to a fall. A lady's seat is generally so strong that many ladies, probably acting on the advice of their male friends, ride with too long reins.

Ordinary Riding.- The only kind of riding practised to any extent by civilians in England at present is that of the hunting field. Park riding is a thing of the past, and riding at polo may be classed as military riding, under which heading I shall consider it. In mounting, if a man is sufficiently tall, he should as a rule stand alongside the horse's near shoulder, should the reins be in his left hand, take hold of the mane about midway between the withers and the ears, face inwards and to the rear, take the near stirrup in the right hand, place the left foot in the stirrup, then put the right hand on the cantle and as far to the off side as he can reach; he should then raise himself by the spring of the right leg, pressure of the hands on respectively the crest and saddle, and as little as possible by the pressure of the foot on the stirrup, so that the saddle may not be displaced. The right leg is now swung over the animal's back, while the knee is kept straight; the right hand quits its hold of the cantle, the rider sinks lightly into the saddle and takes the off stirrup with the right foot.

The reason for placing oneself at the horse's shoulder when preparing to mount is that, if the animal moves forward while the left foot is on the ground, the rider can easily swing himself into the saddle, which he could not do with anything like the same facility if he stood, as many do, behind the girths and facing inwards and forwards.

Besides, when standing at or a little in front of the shoulder, he will be more out of danger from a cow-kick than he would be when standing further back. If the off reins be drawn fairly tight, a playful or vicious horse will be unable to make a snatch at the seat of the horseman's breeches. By bringing the left hand well up on the crest, the base of support formed by the two hands is increased, and the rider's stability when mounting proportionately increased. For the sake of security the feet should always [RIDING the rider should obviously avoid supporting his weight on the stirrups and hanging on to the reins. The stirrups should, as far as possible, be employed only to prevent the legs from suffering undue fatigue from their dependent position; and the reins only to restrain, to collect, and to guide the horse.

This ability to get well into the saddle is best acquired by long continued bare-backed practice, whilst striving to avoid holding on to the reins in order to keep one's balance. In riding, practice is necessary not only to teach one "how to do it," but also to develop those muscles which draw the knees inward. These muscles, which are very little used in pedestrian exercise, are those by which we attain grip in the saddle. Again, the circumstances under which good riding is needed are so full of the unexpected that it must be as nearly automatic as possible. Hence the learner should practice on as many different horses as he can get. As the perfect working of automatic action should be free from the disturbing element of reflection, nothing should be done to disturb the learner's confidence. He should therefore begin on 5'4"- CURB BIT. be placed "home" in the stirrups. The stock argument in favour of placing only the ball of the foot in the stirrup, at least when hacking, is that, by doing so, the rider is enabled to utilise the play of the ankle joints in rising in the stirrups at the trot.

This argument is, however, untenable; for the position of the knees against the flaps of the saddle should under all circumstances remain unchanged, so that the knees may be able to grip the saddle at any moment in the best possible manner, which they would evidently not be capable of doing if they were sliding up and down on the flaps.

It is evident that, to attain strength of seat, a man should adopt a position in the saddle that will enable him, if necessary, to bring the centre of gravity of his body as much as possible to the rear of that point of the saddle upon which his weight rests. He should therefore sit forward in the saddle and get his rump under him. In other words, he should rest his weight on the lower portion of his pelvis, and not on the upper part of his thighs. In this attempt 7/4a thoroughly trustworthy animal, and should proceed to more lively and difficult ores only when he is capable of mastering them.

Horses are so different from each other in their ways and paces that, no matter how good a man may be on one horse, he may make but a very poor show on another that is in no way harder to ride by other men.

The mechanical part of riding is of little use in forming a horseman, if the man does not possess sympathy with his mount. This sympathy, tact, or sentiment is mainly a matter of judicious firmness, and of long and intimate acquaintance with horses of good temper. I cannot speak further on this subject here except to say that we shall get on best with horses if we treat them like children.

So much is spoken about "hands" with reference to riding that we are apt to overlook the fact that no matter how good a man's manipulation of the reins may be, he will make but a poor horseman unless he also knows how to use his legs in order to make the horse go up to his bridle and RIDING] to turn collectedly, when required. Many hunters which have been ridden for a few seasons by capable men acquire such a sound knowledge of their work that, during a run, all the rider has as a rule to do is to sit tight and interfere with his mount as little as possible. Such a confidential conveyance is evidently not the kind to test the riding abilities of the man it carries.

The legs (the drawn-back foot, calf of the leg, and spur if needed) have not only to stimulate and collect the horse, but are also essential in getting him to turn with precision. The man who rides a horse only with his hands acts as if he were ignorant of the fact that the horse has two ends and not one only. All fine jockeys understand the art of using the legs to collect their mount at a finish. Custance, in his Racing Recollections, lays special stress on it. I may briefly point out that the horse, when standing in the ordinary manner, bears more weight on his fore-legs than on his hind ones, a difference which in movement is increased in proportion to the speed.

Hence a horse, like all other horizontally placed objects that have one end heavier than the other end, can be turned, especially during movement, more readily on his heavier end (his fore-hand) than on his hind-quarters. As the position of the rider GENTLEMAN'S SADDLE. augments the proportion of weight borne by the fore-hand, the rider, particularly when he is going fast, should when turning try to check any undue tendency the hindquarters of the animal may have to swing round; the preventive means being to lean back and to draw back the foot opposite to the side to which the turn is being made.

If the horse purposely keeps his hindquarters from coming round (e.g., when he runs out at a fence, while yielding his head to the pull of the rein), we should of course draw back the other foot. It is almost needless to say that the horse will not obey the pressure of the leg, or at least to a very imperfect extent, when turning, unless he has been previously taught to answer this indication.

The system of holding the reins "crossed" in the hands, in the manner practised by all jockeys, is the one which gives the firmest hold and allows the reins to be manipulated and changed from one hand to another with more facility and precision than can be attained in any other way. In all ordinary riding the reins should be held in both hands, for then the power on the reins is stronger, the reins can be held longer and if necessary, lower, and the indications in turning can be given in a more direct manner than when only one hand is employed.

Riding to Hounds. -No man can be looked upon as a fine horseman, in the English acceptation of the term, unless he has a good seat over fences; for, even if he is never called upon to negotiate an obstacle, his horse, from lightheartedness or from terror at some unexpected occurrence, may make as big a jump into the air as he might ever be called upon to perform when crossing a stiff country. In jumping, the chief points to be attended to as regards seat are: to sit well down in the saddle; to lean the head and shoulders back; to draw the feet back so as to avoid, on landing, the shock that is likely to be transmitted from the stirrup irons to the body through the legs; and to grip tightly with the knees if one's balance is not perfect enough to enable one to disregard this aid to "sticking on." In taking off, the animal's fore-hand requires to be light, so that it may be easily raised; and in landing, so that the fore-feet may get out of the way of the hind ones. Unless a horse makes an effort to run out or stop, it is always best to follow Mr. John Hubert Moore's advice, which I have quoted in Riding on the Flat and Across Country, never to interfere with him within the last 40 yards when coming up to a fence.

Before that limit is reached, we may collect him or bustle him along as we may deem needful, but not after we have passed it.

Above all things we should avoid the detestable habit of throwing up the hands when nearing a fence; for if we do so we shall more or less distract the attention of our mount from his work, and shall also prevent him to a greater or less extent from seeing the spot upon which he is going to land. As a last piece of advice about riding at fences, I would counsel my readers never to go at a fence unless they are determined to get to the other side: for by changing their mind at the last moment they, in nine cases out of ten, run not only a greater risk of accident than if they allowed the animal to go straight, but they also do the thing best calculated to render their horse reluctant and cunning. As there is no obligation on men and ladies out hunting REINS IN ONE HAND. to jump or to try to jump, so there is no excuse for going at a fence and then pulling the horse off at the last moment, as many do. This vile habit, which is practised by hard funkers who are generally mean enough to put the blame on their mount, is the chief means by which horses are taught to become obstinate refusers.

The riding part of flat-race and steeplechase riding differs little from that of, say, hunting; the respective tactics of these three forms of sport are outside the compass of this article. In rough-riding (apart from breaking) the chief thing is to stick on. In England horses are brought up under such civilised conditions that there is little demand for the practice of this art. Rough-riding is principally practised by the American cowboys, the Kalmucks of the Don country, and by the buck-jumping riders of Australia. All three greatly depend for security of seat on the peculiar construction of their respective saddles; in fact they ride the saddle more than the horse. Even in Australia, where the finest of all roughriders are to be found, very few of them can stick on a bad buck-jumper in an ordinary English saddle.

When riding a buck-jumper, the chief point to observe is to avoid being pulled forward on the horse's neck by the sudden and downward swing of the animal's head; for then a "twist off the breast" given by the Cumberland wrestler is a trifle compared to the side wrench effected by an animal who knows how to “go to market" in proper style. Owing to improved methods of breaking and management, the supply of buck-jumpers in Australia is becoming less every year and a good thing [RIDING too. There are still plenty to be found in the remount depôts of Little Russia, which I visited once on horse-breaking duty. The colonial buck-jumping saddle, which is admirably suited for its purpose, has its knee rolls placed so as to come over the rider's thighs, and thus keeps him back in the best possible manner. It is also very difficult for a horse to "buck" a man off a lady's side-saddle.

High school riding is what I might call the classical form of military riding, and is carried out with great precision and attention to detail. It is very useful as a means of breaking, but has no claims to be considered, outside a circus, as an end. Its great principle is that the horse should absolutely resign the initiative to his rider. In order to keep up the necessary touch with the horse, the rider must have his spurs close to the animal's sides; in fact, to use the French expression, he should effleurer les poils avec les éperons, to do which he has to turn his toes outwards and consequently his knees away from the flaps of the saddle.

If long in the leg, he will have to regulate the length of his stirrup leathers, not to obtain security of seat, but to enable him to get his heels close to the sides of his horse. In this kind of riding the snaffle of the double bridle is used to keep up the horse's head and the curb to lower it. James Fillis, a Londoner, was undoubtedly the finest exponent of l'équitation savante in the world. The chief legitimate airs de manège are the passage (a high, short, and well-cadenced trot); the piaffer (a trot without gaining ground); the rein back; the striking off from the halt, walk, or trot, Curb Snaffle Snaffle Curb DOUBLE REINS IN BOTH HANDS. into the canter with either the near or the off fore-leg leading as may be required; changing the leg in the canter; cantering purposely with the outward fore-leg leading when working on a circle (cantering "false" purposely); executing a side movement with the fore-feet on one track and the hind-feet on another track (the a RIDING] "passage" of the English military riding schools, and the traverser à deux pistes of the French manège); and the turns on the fore-hand (pirouette renversée) and on the hind-quarters (pirouette ordinaire).

Military riding should be of a composite nature, so that the troop horse may be as handy as a high school performer when his rider has to encounter a hostile cavalry soldier, and as clever over a rough country as a fair hunter, when, for instance, on reconnaissance duty. For this double part the horse has not alone to be specially broken, but his rider must be also specially trained. As the first requirement in the cavalryman is to be able to keep his place in the ranks, he must be thoroughly grounded in the principles and practice of LADY'S SADDLE. (i.) legitimate high school riding, at which he will have almost exclusively to employ the curb, although the snaffle will be principally used when he is called to act independently over broken ground. As cavalry has often to manœuvre on a surface that is far from even, our cavalry regulations wisely enact that the trooper should turn his toes in and consequently keep his spurs away from the sides of his horse, which, under the high school principle of constantly brushing the hairs of that part with the points of the rowels, would run the risk of being ripped every time the animal, owing to the rough nature of the ground, made an unexpected movement. As a cavalryman or artillerydriver is supposed, when on horseback, to have his right hand engaged with sword, lance, or whip, as the case may be, he should be practised to rely entirely on his left hand for guiding his mount when in the ranks or in face of an enemy. At the same time two-handed riding is so greatly superior to one-handed riding for crossing a country, and the exigencies of service are so varied, that the hussar or lancer who knew only how to ride with one hand could not be regarded as thoroughly efficient.

Of late years military riding and jumping have become a feature in the science of equitation, and the international competitions for officers in uniform, which take place at the annual Horse Show at Olympia, have enabled people to judge and compare the various systems in vogue in different armies. Capable judges who have attended these exhibitions award the palm for this species of riding to the Austrians, closely followed by the Italians and Belgians, with the French and Germans coming next in that order, though the King Edward VII.

Gold Cup was won in 1910 by a Belgian team, and in 1909 by one from the French army. Though the spread of the English "hunting seat" throughout the Continent (due to the great increase in the number of packs of hounds that have been formed in various countries during the last decade) has modified to some extent, the original stiffness of the foreign military seat, the Continental officer, especially in what is known as "Alpine riding," still rides by grip rather than by balance. A British huntsman, for example, will get down equally formidable places with those depicted in photographs of "Alpine riding," and do so much more quickly, without any such use of grip, and consequently with less fatigue to himself or his mount. Mention may here be made of the Boer style of riding the native ponies, of which the Basuto pony is the best. These ponies have a natural pace, called the "triple"-a species of hand-gallop-as easy to the rider as an armchair canter, though not, like the latter, detrimental to the horse. By its employment these ponies cover remarkable distances in a day, and the extraordinary mobility of the Boer commandos in the late war was to be attributed in great measure to this cause. The South African pony is ridden with one hand, and only on the snaffle.

Polo is a form of one-handed riding in which quickness at starting, pulling up, turning, and getting under way are specially sought for. Besides, the player should be able to make his pony passage at the gallop when riding off an opponent.

Ladies' Riding. As a man cannot be expected to know more about ladies' riding than a lady knows about men's riding (which is not much), I have referred to my wife as the best authority I could consult on this subject, and will now give her ideas pure and simple. As riding by ladies in England is principally confined to hunting, the following observations will be made with special reference to that sport.

Ladies having, from the nature of their seat, to ride the saddle more than the horse, and being specially exposed to the awful danger of being "dragged," a preliminary word or two about their gear and riding things may not be out of place. First and foremost, the lady will require a habit which, while being smart and decent, will eliminate all possibility of her being "hung up." Boots and breeches covered by a modern "safety habit" are now exclusively used by ladies riding. The best arrangement for the stirrup is that afforded bv Champion and Wilton's safety bar. Safety stirrups are in themselves simply death traps. One day when out hunting, my wife's horse cannoned against a tree on his near side, with the result that the so-called "safety" stirrup got crushed on to her foot so tightly that after the run the stirrup had to be cut through with a file before it could be removed from the foot. Had the horse fallen, she would certainly have been dragged.

The squarer a lady sits that is, the more nearly the line of her shoulders is at right angles to the direction in which the horse is proceeding the better will she look, the firmer will be her seat, and the more command will she have over her horse. Again, as the power of leaning back (not sitting back) in the saddle by the play of the hip joints is essential to strength and flexibility of seat, the feet should not be drawn back; because the more that is done, the greater tendency will the rider have to lean forward. These considerations will show that the weight should be borne by the right thigh; that the right foot should be allowed to hang downwards and forwards without any stiffness; and that the left foot should on no account be drawn back. By placing the outside right foot and ankle against the near side of the horse, where the neck runs into the shoulder, the rider will not only be able to lean back and sit square, but she will also be able to keep in constant touch with her mount, and will consequently know better how he is going, than she could do if she had her right foot drawn back on the flap or "safe" of the saddle.

One of the most common faults ladies commit in riding is to clutch on to the upper crutch with the right leg, and then they wonder why that member gets tired and cut under the knee, and why their too candid father or brother tells them that they should keep their right shoulder back and not crane forward so much. While balance is attained by the action of the right leg and play of the hip joints, grip is got by pressing the left leg, just above the knee, against the leaping head. As this pressure can be effected in the best possible manner by the [RIDING play of the ankle joint with the "tread " of the stirrup iron as a fixed point, the stirrup leather should be of such a length as to enable this to be done without in any way causing that limb to be held stiffly.

Practically speaking, the right length will allow of the flat of the right hand being placed easily between the leaping head and that part of the leg which will be pressed against it, when required. It stands to reason that the more the flap of the left knee is brought close to the flap of the [By courtesy of Messrs. Whippy, Steggall, and Co.

LADY'S SADDLE. (ii.) saddle, the squarer will be the seat and the firmer will be the grip. Ordinary Leaping heads are, however, constructed ir. such a manner that when the leg is pressed against them, they cause the knee to be carried outwards. I have devised a leaping head which obviates this undesirable tendency, and consequently greatly adds to the rider's strength of seat. Within recent years riding astride has become increasingly popular with ladies, even in the hunting field, and especially so with children and young girls up to the age of sixteen or seventeen. Whatever ev opinion may be held as to its desirability in all cases, ladies who have been practised during childhood in this method of riding usually possess a better seat on a side-saddle in after life than those who have only been brought up to the orthodox style.

It is evident that with the length of stirrup I have advocated, the lady cannot use a spur, which, being on only one RIFLES] side, would in any case be out of place in cross-country work. As high school écuyères are obliged to use the spur as well as the whip to perform their various airs, they are consequently forced to have a leaping head that almost entirely surrounds the leg, in order to admit of the knee being carried outwards when using the spur. Such an arrangement is obviously applicable only to a riding school or circus.

Even ladies who ride with a long stirrup in an ordinary side saddle are unable to use the spur on the only place to which it should be applied, namely, just behind the girths; hence, when they employ the spur, they usually content themselves by ripping the horse's near flank. The spur, therefore, should form no part of a lady's riding equipment. The remarks made about two-handed riding apply to ladies even better than they do to men; for it gives ladies the additional advantage of helping them to sit square.

M. H. HAYES.

Revised by L. C. R. CAMERON.

Bibliography. Riding on the Flat and Across Country, for riding as it is practised in England, India, and the Colonies; Fillis's Principes de Dressage et d'Equitation, and Barroil's Art Equestre for high school and military riding; and The Horsewoman for ladies' riding. As the subject of riding is intimately connected with that of breaking, I may mention that many useful hints on horsemanship may be obtained from Illustrated Horsebreaking. In Mr. E. D. Miller's Modern Polo there is a special section on "Riding at Polo." Colonel Greenwood's Hints on Horsemanship is an excellent work, but unfortunately it has long been out of print. Whyte Melville's Riding Recollections is a book dear to every horseman.

RIFLES AND RIFLE-SHOOTING.

RIFLES FOR FOREIGN SHOOT- ING.-Great and important changes have taken place in recent years in the evolution of the sporting rifle. Fifteen years ago the black-powder Express still stood its ground, and the cumbrous and punishing 4-bore and 8-bore rifles were constantly used by sportsmen in search of heavy and dangerous game, such as elephant, rhinoceros, and buffalo. All these have been swept away by the introduction of smokeless powder and lighter weapons of much smaller calibre, which, owing to the immensely increased velocity that they afford, their flat trajectory and enormous striking force, have completely ousted black-powder rifles. The sportsman's comfort, especially when shooting in a hot and exhausting climate, has, of course, been proportionately increased, and many hunters are now found taking the field against the most formidable game with no heavier a weapon than a 303, 318, 350, or 400 rifle. Even now, although something very like perfection seems to have been attained in the manufacture of sporting rifles, improvements are still taking place, in bullets, powder, and weapons, and it would be rash to prophesy that anything like finality is yet reached in the development of these arms of precision. terri When Mr. F. C. Selous made his first campaign against elephants in the year 1872 he used a smooth four-bore gun, carrying spherical bullets-four to the poundbacked by a charge of 17 drachms of powder. This was the weapon then commonly in use among the Transvaal Boers who were engaged in hunting elephants.

It was a terribly punishing piece, and one can only marvel at the hardihood of the men who could make a foot campaign with it against dangerous game in a hot climate.

The old gun, which weighs about 21 lb., is still to be seen in Mr. Selous's museum at Worplesdon, and the modern sportsman can gauge from it the enormous improvements which have taken place in the last thirty or forty years. Even the 577 blackpowder Express, which is a sufficiently formidable rifle, seems a weapon of perfection when compared with the old elephant roer" of the Dutch hunters in South Africa. 66 Mr. Selous was one of the first sportsmen to demonstrate that heavy rifles and big charges were not vital essentials for the destruction even of the biggest and most dangerous of African game. Many years ago, when hunting elephants, he found himself, after an attack of fever, too weak to use a heavy rifle. He therefore attacked a troop of elephants with no more formidable weapon than a 450 Metford-Gibbs, using long, solid, toughened bullets and a powder charge of 75 grains. With this rifle he killed in a single day no fewer than six elephants; if he had been in his usual health and better mounted he would probably have slain twice the number, as he had with the same weapon and charge shot previously buffalo, giraffe, hippopotami, and even rhinoceros. It became clear that, to a cool and seasoned sportsman, the 450 was practically as useful a weapon as a 4- or an 8-bore. Soon after this time large numbers of heavy game were being killed with no heavier weapon and missile than the Martini-Henry rifle, using using the ordinary Government ammunition 450-577. Not all sportsmen, however, cared to take the risk of following heavy and dangerous game in bush or forest with such weapons, and even until comparatively recently, experienced gunners have been found using 8-bore and even 4-bore rifles under such conditions.

At the present day, so immense has been the improvement in rifles and ammunition, a hunter using a smokeless-powder 500 rifle or an improved 12-bore ball and shot gun may reckon upon dealing a charging elephant, rhinoceros, or buffalo a more terrible and smashing blow than if he were armed with one of the older and far more cumbrous and nerve-racking weapons.

With the advent of smokeless powder and the 303 Lee-Metford rifle came another vast change in shooting conditions. Mr.

A. H. Neumann, a hunter of great experience and success, in 1895-6 took the field against elephants in East Africa with the 303 Lee-Metford service rifle, having a native gun-bearer close at hand with Martini-Henry as "cripple-stopper." With this rifle (the '303) and its slender missile he bagged a good many rhinoceros and elephants. To tackle such huge game with a [RIFLES time the '600 bore is as powerful a weapon as any man need wish for when pursuing dangerous game. The weight of a double '600 is about 13 lb. The striking force of a bullet from such a rifle is more than 8,500 ft.-lb., a tremendous impact, if it be remembered that the old 4-bore, with 14 drachms of black powder, yielded no more than 7,000 ft.-lb. of striking force. Another excellent weapon for bush and forest shooting is a first-rate 12-bore ball and shot gun, which is as handy as an ordinary shot-gun, and delivers a blow of enormous force.

Westley Richards' "Explora" is perhaps one of the best examples of this type of weapon. It has this advantage over the '600 smokeless Express, that it weighs no more than 7 lb. The 500 or 465 or '470 double rifles weigh somewhere from 1 to JOSEPH LANG & S A TYPICAL MODERN HIGH VELOCITY RIFLE, MADE IN ALL BORES FROM *256 TO '600. so light a weapon and bullet a man must, of course, be very sure of his shooting.

And at close quarters there is always the risk that an elephant or rhinoceros may not be stopped by the 303, when a bullet of heavier calibre would almost certainly have brought down or turned the beast.

Mr. Neumann himself, when using this weapon, was, thanks to a fault or hitch in the mechanism, charged, knocked over, and all but killed by a cow elephant. which crushed in his ribs, drove her tusk through his arm, and disabled him for months. If at that moment he had had in his hand a 500 or even a 400 rifle, or a 12-bore ball and shot gun, he would almost certainly have turned the charge or brought the animal down. But the fact remains that during the last dozen years elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, and other heavy game have been frequently killed by sportsmen in Africa and other parts of the world while using the light and handy 303 rifle.

Sportsmen have not yet abandoned heavy and powerful weapons when attacking elephants, rhinoceros, buffalo, gaur, Indian buffalo (arna), &c. Especially is this the case in bush and jungle shooting, where these animals are often encountered at dangerously close quarters. At the present [By courtesy of Messrs. Lang. 10 lb., and are all of them first-rate weapons for heavy game. The 450 rifle, it is to be remembered, is not now available for India under the present Government regulations. The 400-bore rifle is another excellent weapon, and may be depended upon even against elephant and rhinoceros.

A double rifle of this calibre weighs no more than from 9 lb. to 10 lb. In place of a double rifle some sportsmen prefer a 404 Mauser Magazine action rifle, which, while giving excellent results with heavy game, is a lighter and handier weapon. It ought always to be remembered that when attacking thick-skinned game, such elephant, rhinoceros, and even buffalo, the expanding bullets used with lions, tigers, antelope, and other thin-skinned game are not suitable. Penetration as well as shock is necessary, and a solid lead, nickel-coated bullet, or a good, capped, nickel-coated bullet of modern, improved type will be the proper missile against such game. as Smokeless powder has within the last fifteen years added immensely to the comfort as well as to the death-dealing capacity of the gunner. Cordite still holds its own with remarkable success, but axite is, in the opinion of most big-game sportsmen who have used it, the finest and most satisfactory RIFLES] powder yet produced for sporting rifles.

Black powder has naturally retired very much into the background. As fine black powder Express rifles are to be had nowadays for a mere song, they are still used here and there by those gunners who cannot afford the expense of a good modern smokeless powder rifle. Their day is, however, completely passed, and the purchaser of a new rifle should never dream of acquiring any other weapon than a modern smokeless powder Express or magazine rifle.

For use against soft-skinned game and especially for shooting antelope on open plains, wild sheep and goats in mountain country, for deer, wapiti, moose, and caribou, and for lion, tiger, leopard, and other carnivora, rifles of even smaller bore than the 400 have proved themselves perfect sporting weapons. Among these are to be cited the 303 Lee-Metford, the 256 Männlicher, the Mauser and Mauser-Rigby rifles. Westley-Richards' '318 is a very perfect weapon for all-round shooting.

Modern smokeless powder, used with these small-bore rifles, in conjunction with the various expanding bullets, of which there are many excellent kinds made by different rifle-makers, has, for all such soft-skinned game, proved extraordinarily efficient. These weapons have stood the test of years, and are regarded with increasing favour by sportsmen in all parts of the world. For stalking especially, such weapon as the Männlicher, or Männlicher- Schönhauer rifle, with its astonishing accuracy, immense striking force, and flat trajectory, combined with singular lightness (about 7 lb.) and absence of recoil, renders it an almost ideal weapon. To the wonderful accuracy of such weapons has latterly been added the modern invention of telescope sights, by means of which the longrange stalker has been able to add something like two- or three-fold to his former shooting powers. For hill shooting and for stalking game such as springbok on open plains, where no nearer distance than from 300 or 400 yards can be attained, the value of a good telescope sight is, in the opinion of many sportsmen, not to be overstated. a The novice ought, perhaps, to be reminded that at close quarters with such dangerous game as lion, tiger, buffalo, and even leopard, a rifle of somewhat heavier calibre than the 256 or 303 is desirable.

The blow to be delivered must be a very severe one, or the animal may make good its charge, and a heavier bullet, capable of administering great and instantaneous shock and smashing power, should be employed.

In such a situation a 400, 465, or even a 500 rifle is the more desirable weapon.

Equally good in such an emergency is a VOL. IV first-class 12-bore ball and shot gun, of the Explora or Paradox type.

In addition to the various types of weapon to which I have already referred, there are many other patterns and bores, most of them excellent and highly serviceable weapons, manufactured by the various highclass rifle-makers. Among such are the 318, 333, 350, and other bores. It would be impossible, within the limits of this article, to refer to all of them. For greatgame shooting at the present day in Africa, India, or any part of the world, a serviceable battery would be as follows :- 1. 256 Männlicher or 275 Mauser- Rigby Magazine sporting rifle, or 318 Westley-Richards' Magazine rifle, either of them useful for almost any kind of game. 2. A double 465 or '500 smokeless Express, suitable for elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, gaur, lion, tiger, or any other kind of dangerous game. 3. A 12-bore ball and shot gun of the Explora or Paradox type, an excellent weapon, carried in reserve for snap-shooting at dangerous game in jungle, bush, or forest. The Explora (Westley Richards) is the latest and most adequate weapon of this type. 4. A 303 sporting rifle, for use by native hunters, or as a spare weapon. 5. A 12-bore shot gun, left-barrel slightly choked, for game bird shooting.

This is a battery of which even the wealthiest and most luxurious sportsman need not be ashamed. If a still heavier and more powerful weapon than the 500 is deemed necessary, the gunner can arm himself, if he chooses, with a 600, a weapon which Major Powell Cotton recently used in his Central African expeditions. So well, however, has this gentleman been satisfied with the powers of the '400 rifle that he expresses his intention of leaving the '600 behind on later trips.

For a man of limited means, intending to shoot all kinds of game in Africa or India, a good battery would be :- 1. A 256 Männlicher. 2. A single 400 smokeless Express rifle. 3. A 12-bore shot gun.

And if, from motives of economy, only one rifle were to be taken for all-round shooting, from gazelle to elephant, the writer would be inclined to choose a good medium-bore magazine weapon, such, for Holland and Holland instance, as a Velopex" '375, or a Westley-Richards 375, or a Jeffery-Mauser '404, taking, of course, suitable bullets for the different kinds of game.

If the gunner is going to a country where neither elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, nor other formidable game is to be encountered, he may very well content himself with a 256 Männlicher or 303 or 318 Magazine sporting rifle. Where a long trip is intended to be taken in East or Central Africa, and it is necessary to be accompanied by a native escort, these men can be suitably armed with Snider carbines, which can be procured in England at low prices. In purchasing all rifles, it is cheaper in the long run to go to a first-class maker of established reputation than to attempt to obtain low-priced weapons. The rifle should be well tried before leaving England, the sighting most carefully tested, and the trigger pull adjusted to the shooter's liking. For antelope or gazelle shooting on the plains, or in hill country, sighting should be adjusted up to 400 to 500 yards.

Patterns of bullets are many and various, and most rifle-makers have some special variety which has been proved by sportsmen in all parts of the world to be excellent for the purposes for which it is intended. A solid nickel-covered bullet gives enormous penetration, and is suitable for head or heart shots at elephant. A nickel-covered bullet showing a little lead at the apex is also excellent for elephant, rhinoceros, or buffalo. For greater expansion against soft-skinned game, such as lion, tiger, deer, antelope, &c., a bullet half nickel cased and with the apex half of soft lead is very deadly; new pointed, nickel-cap bullet is very deadly, and gives tremendous results.

The nickel-cased "split" bullet with lead just showing at the point is also very effective for all kinds of shooting.

Westley-Richards' patent, copper capped, expanding bullet is also a first-rate missile, giving good results with all kinds of game.

It "mushrooms" splendidly and is as effective for huge beasts such as elephant and rhinoceros as the solid bullet. But for the head shot, where great penetration is necessary, the solid, nickel-cased bullet would still probably be the safer and more effective. For ball and shot guns the brasscapped bullet, devised by Westley-Richards for use with their "Explora" weapon, gives enormous smashing power as well as penetration, and is probably the most effective missile for this class of weapon-suitable for quick shooting in bush and jungle at dangerous game-yet invented. No animal can resist the impact of such a bullet if well planted, the shock administered being enormous. Sights and sighting should be carefully looked to. Nothing has yet been discovered to beat ivory as a sporting_fore-sight. Aperture backsights, such as Lyman's, are a great aid to accurate [RIFLES shooting, especially for stalking antelope fine shooting is the telescope-sight, which and gazelles. But a still greater help to fixed to a rifle specially used for long-range can be readily adjusted or kept permanently shooting. A good telescope-sight, beyond all doubt, adds immensely to the shooting powers of any sportsman, and especially to those gunners whose eyesight is not very keen at long distances, the comfort, accuracy, and increased range of vision Great care, however, should be taken in offered by this invention are very notable. buying a telescope-sight, and the instrument should be carefully tested at a long-range target before going abroad. Messrs. Rigby and Co. and W. J. Jeffrey and Co. have acquired well-deserved reputations for these sights, and Messrs. Westley Richards and one or two other firms have also devoted much attention to this branch of shooting gear. A telescopic sight is, however, at the present time somewhat of a sporting luxury, and the additional cost will range somewhere between £5 1os. and £12 12S.

For £7 IOS. a really good and serviceable telescope-sight ought to be obtained. man nipple wrench, and screw should be taken.

Spare sights, strikers, cleaning apparatus, The rifles should have eyes and a leather sling, although not every mounted his rifle slung at his back. Native carriers cares, like the South African Boer, to carry and in the South African interior the post are, more often than not, to be met with, of rifle-carrier for the British sportsman is looked upon by Bushmen and other native hunters as one of great honour and credit.

A sight protector for the foresight, and a waterproof gun cover for wet weather, are items that ought not to be omitted. No sportsman should be without a good but light pair of field-glasses, nor should he leave camp without having in his belt-pouch (unless water is plentiful) a water-bottle a box of matches, a pocket compass, and slung to his saddle, or carried by his native containing tea or any other pet beverage attendant. a H. A. BRYDEN.

TARGET SHOOTING. -Few outdoor forms of sport of a quiet character have attracted, and held the continued attention of so many enthusiasts, as target shooting with the rifle. This is in a great measure due to the wonderful results obtained with modern small arms, and the interest that the many problems connected with them arouse.

The enormous success of the miniature rifle movement makes it clear that, could the cost of full-charge rifle shooting be brought within the means of the general RIFLE SHOOTING] public, it would take but a short time to form a large body of trained civilian rifle shots. With our small Army and inadequate Reserve, this is exactly what is required. Unfortunately, the British Government has neither sympathy with nor money for the encouragement of rifle shooting among civilians. Voluntary enlistment may be sufficient to meet our military requirements in times of peace, but, should war come, the recruits then wanted will be those who have already learned to shoot well, and on whom valuable time need not be wasted, teaching them the most usually on the second Monday in July, lasts for a fortnight, and is attended by representative riflemen from all parts of the Empire.

According to N.R.A. regulations, rifles are divided into four classes: match, service, sporting, and miniature.

The Match Rifle. The object of the M.R. is to obtain the best shooting possible with a rifle conforming generally to service requirements (except with regard to sights), and thereby ascertain how the shooting powers of the military rifle can improved. be CAPTAIN P. GODSAL FIRING IN THE BASS COMPETITION. necessary qualification of the present-day soldier. can Rifle shooting is almost, if not the only sport, in which no distinction is made between amateur and professional. There is no doubt but that the man who earns his livelihood from rifles, testing each one that passes through his hands, attains a proficiency that few amateurs indeed hope to equal. With both arms and ammunition as reliable as they are at present the really good shots will nearly always be found at the top. The scores they make may be great advertisements, but whether they deter from shooting and competition a larger number than they attract is a matter worthy of the consideration of all interested in the encouragement of rifle shooting.

Fortunately for target shooting, the regulations issued by the National Rifle Association of Great Britain in its annual programme of the Bisley Prize Meeting are adopted as the standard by all clubs and associations throughout the United Kingdom and in most of the Colonies. The Bisley (Brookwood, Surrey) Meeting commences The N.R.A. definition of the M.R. is :- Any breech-loading rifle complying with the following conditions:

Proof Marks-When of British make to bear proof marks both on barrel and breach.

Weight of Barrel, not including any removable appliances, not to exceed 34 lbs.

Calibre-Maximum, 310.

Pull of Trigger-Minimum, 4 lbs.

Sights-Of any description.

In 1896 a revolution took place in M.R. shooting.

The adoption of the 303 Lee-Metford as the British service or military rifle, using cordite powder and metal-covered bullets, rendered the 450 M.R., using black powder and lead bullets, of no further practical use, and the long career of the latter, first as a muzzle- and subsequently as a breech-loader, terminated in 1896, when the N.R.A. decided that the calibre of the M.R. should not exceed 315 of an inch. That figure has since been reduced to 310, at which it now stands.

It was some time, however, before a rifle of the new type was found equal to the old 450, the accuracy and reliability of which D2 up to 1,000 yards made shooting with it a real pleasure.

The record scores made with the 450 M.R. in the United Kingdom are:- [RIFLE SHOOTING Royal Rifles, won the Olympic Games Individual Long Range Match at Bisley. INDIVIDUAL MATCHES.

Yards.

Competition. Date. Competitor.

Total. 800 900 1,000 ... 72 221 Competition for the Scotch Eight 1885 Regular and Volunteer Officers 1889 T. Caldwell Capt. T. Lamb 74 75 75 73 72 220 United States v.

Ireland 800, 900 and 1,000 yards Elcho Shield TEAM MATCHES.

Total. Average per man. 1880 U.S. Team (Six) ... 1,292 2153 1892 Scotland (Eight) ... 1,696 212 For several years after its introduction, the 303 proved unsatisfactory as a match rifle, owing to reliable ammunition being unobtainable. Cordite, the explosive adopted by the Government, was found to vary considerably in strength with changes of temperature and length of time in keeping, and the 256 Männlicher, Dutch model, gradually supplanted British-made rifles for match shooting, chiefly on account of the excellent quality of the ammunition. In both 1901 and 1902 the Männlicher won every first prize except one at Bisley, but in 1903 the Kings Norton Metal Co. brought out a 225 grain bullet, and with their Palma cartridges the '303 came to the front. In 1905 the same company introduced modified cordite, giving a higher velocity without a corresponding increase of pressure and less affected by atmospheric changes. Axite, a powder possessing similar good qualities, was soon afterwards produced by Messrs.

Kynoch and Co., of Birmingham, and with these new explosives, used in increased charges (in 375/303 cases), the wonderful capabilities of the Enfield barrel at once became apparent. A cartridge of exceptional power was completed in 1908 by the substitution of the pointed- for the roundnosed bullet, and with magnifying sights, sanctioned by the N.R.A. in the same year, the 303 match rifle at last equalled the old 450 in reliability, and eclipsed it in accuracy.

Up to 1910 the ranges for M.R. shooting were 800, 900, and 1,000 yards. The target measures 10 ft. long by 6 ft. high, the bull'seye being 3 ft. in diameter. (See page 43.) In 1908 Colonel J. K. Millner, King's Score ...

COL. MILLNER'S DIAGRAM. - 98. 55555555554554 555555 303 M.R. Swift Axite cartridges (p. 38, Fig. 3) magnifying sights.

The most important M.R. team competition at Bisley is that for the Elcho Challenge Shield. The score of 1,696, made with the 450 rifle by the Scotch team in 1892, remained a record in this match until 1909, when the English made 1,717, an average of 2140 per man, Colonel G. C. Gibbs also making a record individual score of 223 out of a possible 225. ELCHO SHIELD, 1909. COLL. GIBBS' SCORE. 800 yds. 1,000 1,000 دو وو ... 555555555555555-75 554555555555555 74 555545555555555-74 223 '375/ 303 rifle by Gibbs. Kings Norton long Palma cartridges (p. 38, Fig. 5).

In 1910 the 800 range was abolished, and 1,100 yards substituted for it in M.R. competitions, the pointed bullet and powerful ammunition being responsible for the 900 Yds. 55V V V V V V V V V V 55V = 75 1000 Yds 1100 Yds 1,000.-V V 4 V V V V V 5 V V 5VV5 = 74 1,100.-454 V V V V 54V 5VVV5 = 72 Total 221.

ELCHO SHIELD MATCH, 1910. Dr. J. Sellars' Diagrams.

Enfield barrel in Mauser action. Long Swift Axite cartridges (p. 38, Fig. 4), magnifying sights.

The V or Roman 5, indicates a central bull's-eye, 21 inches in diameter, introduced in 1910. In cases of ties it counted 6. change. Over the extended ranges the English team again won the Elcho Shield, making 1,674, an average of 2094 per man.

A 1,200 yards competition was also introduced at Bisley, and was won by Lieut.- Colonel Mellish with 71 out of 75, the shoot- RIFLE SHOOTING] ing being so good that an important match at this distance has been arranged for 1911.

Among match riflemen, 1910 will always be associated with the name of Dr. J. C. Sellars, of Dundalk, who achieved the triple distinction of winning the Championship of Ireland at the I.R.A. Prize Meeting at Dublin, the Championship of England at Bisley, and of making the highest individual score in the Elcho match.

As a wind-up to a season in which nearly every record had been broken, the scores made at 1,300 and 1,400 yards by Mr. Louis Chadwick on September 10th, 1910, on Colonel J. Hopton's range at Canon Ffrome formed a fitting climax. 1300. yds. 1400.yds. 1,300.-5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 96 1,400.-5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 = 98 MR. CHADWICK'S DIAGRAMS.

Target 9 ft. x 9 ft. Bull's-eye 4 ft. 6 ins. diameter. Enfield barrel by the B.S.A. Company, fitted into a Krag action. Kings Norton long Palma cartridges (p. 38, Fig. 5).

Skill in M.R. shooting depends altogether on ability to judge correctly the effects of the wind and other atmospheric influences on the flight of the bullet, and to make proper allowances for them on the sights.

The back position, permitted with all rifles at 800 yards and over, is usually adopted with the M.R., a spirit level being allowed to ensure the sights being kept perfectly upright. This is a necessary precaution, as the line of aim is high over the centre of the barrel. Should the sights lean to the right, the bullet will be thrown to that side, and if the lean be considerable it will also POSITION No. I. strike low. The back is much steadier than the prone in a strong wind, and does not require the same physique or nerve to get through a long competition or a close finish.

The back position generally adopted is that illustrated in No. 1, with the rifle resting between the legs. The left foot should be placed flat upon the ground, the knee POSITION No. 2. almost upright, and the left instep gripped firmly by the inside of the right knee. The head may be supported by catching the left sleeve, or a small band attached to it, in the teeth. No. 2 is known as the toe position.

As the shooter's knees somewhat interfere with his observing the wind changes whilst aiming, it is of importance that the shot should be fired as quickly as possible, consistently with a steady aim being taken, after the sights have been adjusted. A little practice will enable a beginner, by closing his hand on the grip, to release the trigger almost instantly, yet without the slightest jerk. Shooting over the thigh (No. 3) has the advantage of giving a clear view of the targets; but, owing to the rifle merely resting on, and not being caught by, the legs, it is scarcely as steady as either I or 2.

POSITION No. 3.

Sights.-Aperture sights, usually in the form of concentric rings, have always been permitted with the M.R. In 1908 telescopic and magnifying sights were sanctioned, and their use has tended to more central grouping of the shots. Better definition is also obtained in bad light, but the difficulty of keeping the lenses dry in wet weather is often considerable, and a drop of rain on the back lens usually results in a miss. Clearness of definition is far more important than high magnification.

The front sight should be immovable, the lens set as low as possible over the barrel.

Lateral adjustments for wind and vertical for elevation are then made on the backsight, which is fitted on a sliding bed-plate. Allowance for a wind blowing from the right is made by screwing the back-sight to the right, and vice versa. Cross-lines, as in an astronomical telescope, or a ring on the front lens, usually form the front sight.

KYNOCH 303 Elevation. In addition to the force of gravity, the elevation of the bullet is influenced by the force and direction of the wind, except when blowing at right angles to the range. A head wind depresses; a rear wind elevates it in its flight. With its flatter trajectory and increased velocity the pointed is much less affected than the roundnosed bullet. The density of the atmosphere through which the bullet cleaves its way has also to be reckoned with. A high barometer means a heavy atmosphere, and consequently a high elevation. A low barometer and moist weather in general a low elevation.

The direction of the wind, or the situation of a shot on the target, is referred to by the position of the figures on the face of a watch. Thus a XII o'clock wind is a head, a VI o'clock a rear wind; a III o'clock shot is on the centre line of the [RIFLE SHOOTING target out to the right. Wind allowance, and the difference in elevation above or below the normal, are calculated in feet and inches, and the sights are adjusted to read off the required amounts.

Normal Elevation means the elevation a rifle requires in a calm. When ascertained, the normal elevations for the different ranges should be marked on the back-sight, and all calculations made from them as starting points.

The excellent quality of factory-loaded cartridges is one of the most pleasing features of present-day target shooting.

Uniform strength and freedom from setting up fouling are the essential qualities. Cartridges are expected to and in good hands usually keep bull's-eye elevation at 1,000 yards, i.e., the maximum deviation should not exceed 18 ins. from the centre of the group at this distance.

CARTRIDGES FOR THE SERVICE AND MATCH RIFLES.

Old Pattern.

SERVICE RIFLE.

Kings Norton Metal Coy. 1911.

Provisional.

KYNOCH 305 SWIFT AXITE KYNOCH 375/303 SWIFT AXITE MATCH RIFLES.

Kynoch & Company Swift Axite.

Kings Norton Metal Coy.

Long Palma. 303 *375/'303 *375/'303 OCH WH MY BIRMI FIG. 1. a.-Cordite β.-Roundnosed γ.-215 grs. 8.-2,060 6.-16 tons.

FIG. 2.

Tubular Cordite Pointed FIG. 3.

Axite, 37 grs.

Pointed 2,360 FIG. 4.

Axite, 42 grs.

Pointed 2,500 FIG. 5.

Modified Cordite Pointed 2,510 18 tons. a.-Explosive. β.-Bullet, shape. y.- Bullet, weight. δ.-Bullet. muzzle velocity.

FIG. 6.

Nitro Cellulose Pointed 2,740 e.-Pressure in Chamber. 280 ROSS Ross Match Rifle *280 RIFLE SHOOTING」 Wind Allowances. -Roughly speaking, the bullet takes about one second to travel up to the 600 yards, and two up to the 1,000 yards target. The distance it is carried out of its true course by the wind in this time has to be calculated by the shooter, and, by shifting the back-sight from one side to the other, the rifle is pointed sufficiently into the wind, so that the bullet may strike the centre of the target. As the wind changes in direction, its effects on the bullet vary laterally and vertically in an inverse ratio.

A head, or XII o'clock wind, requires the maximum elevation, with the minimum allowance for wind. As it changes round to III, the elevation sinks to normal, whilst the wind allowance increases to its maximum, and so through each quarter, as a reference to the diagram will show. Wind allowance must be learned by experience.

Elevation- Wind XII I 2 points aver normal. Hover normal 2 under normal.

IA 24 fover normal under normal A normal tunder normal THE TATE LIBRARY, BRIXTON, S.W, looked for through a strong glass or telescope it will be seen drifting with the wind in front of the targets, and is the most reliable tell-tale of what a light wind is doing.

It is only waste of entry fees, ammunition, and temper to enter for competitions except with a good rifle in which the competitor has confidence, and until his last shot is registered he should never relax his efforts to make every possible point. Once started, the sooner a competitor has finished a competition the better; the less time occupied, the fewer changes of wind will be encountered. The unexpected happens in rifle shooting as often as, if not oftener than, in any other form of sport; and delay has often lost and but seldom won a match .

Before commencing each range, both elevation and wind allowance should be carefully checked, and care taken that the latter is on the right way. Carelessness in these matters has ruined many a good score.

Extreme and, during the continuance of a match, undivided attention must be given to the atmospheric changes. On each shot being fired, particular note should be made in the memory of the strength and direction of the wind, for reference, prior to altering the sights for the next one.

Cleaning Out. - The barrel may not be normal cleaned out except between ranges, but it but it should then be systematically done. A foul barrel cannot shoot well, and metal-cased bullets quickly set up metallic fouling.

Gauge plugs measuring 303, 30275, 3025, and 302 of an inch in diameter are useful in testing the position and extent of fouling.

Should it be found impossible to remove fouling with a wire gauze pull-through, the use of K.N.S., a chemical solvent that does not injure the barrel, will be found satisfactory.

DIAGRAM OF THE ALTERATIONS IN ELEVATION AND WIND ALLOWANCE, NECESSARY UPON A STRONG BUT STEADY WIND CHANGING IN DIRECTION FROM XII TO VI O'CLOCK.

The changes in the strength of III and IX o'clock winds are the easiest to appreciate.

Head and rear winds, especially those known as fish-tails, in which the direction is constantly shifting from XI to I, or from V to VII, are the most difficult to follow and judge correctly. A stiff breeze often holds its strength steadily; a soft wind, especially in hot weather, rarely.

A cloud bringing up a shower always affects both the direction and strength of the wind. A thunderstorm usually causes it to shift round suddenly to the opposite quarter, an equally quick return to the original direction taking place when the storm is past.

Mirage is the name given by riflemen to the heated air rising from the earth. When The life of a barrel for really fine target work rarely exceeds 1,000 shots; 600 may be taken as the average. With lead bullets a good barrel lasted a life-time, but with a bullet cased with nickel or steel, quite as hard, and considerably larger,¹ than the bore through which it is driven, the only wonder is that any rifling is left after the first shot.

A second rifle or a barrel that has been tried and sighted should form a portion of the equipment of every competitor at an important meeting. a The types of match rifles now used are (1) Lee-Enfields of service pattern, or made by private firms and Governmentviewed, taking 303 cartridge. (2) Barrels of Enfield pattern, chambered to take a 375/303 cartridge, and mounted in 1 The bullets used in the 303 barrel are 311 in diameter. strong actions, such as the Männlicher, Mauser, Ross, or Godsal. (3) Ross 280 taking taking the Ross-Eley cartridge. (4) Krag bore.

From the lists of prize-winners at Bisley in 1910, the competitors using these rifles 1910, the competitors using these rifles numbered:

The 375/303, 54; the Lee- Enfield, 3; Enfield, 3; the Ross, 3; the Krag, 2. [RIFLE SHOOTING Shield to choose their representatives.

The Irish Rifle Association holds an open prize meeting in June, at which £200 is offered in prizes for the match rifle. tion of the service rifle is :- The Service Rifle. - The N.R.A. defini- Any 303 rifle as issued by the British Government or the Government of any British Colony or Dependency Government of any British Colony or Dependency FIRING FOR THE KING'S PRIZE AT BISLEY.

The best-known firms that supply match rifles are: Messrs. Frazer of Edinburgh; are:

Messrs. Frazer of Edinburgh; Gibbs, of Bristol; Martin, of Glasgow; Rigby, of London; the Birmingham Small Arms Co. and Messrs. Webley and Scott, of Birmingham . Most of the above firms make slight modifications in the lead or passage for the bullet, from the chamber into the barrel, or in the rifling, which they claim improves the shooting.

Long-Range Clubs find the difficulty of obtaining suitable range accommodation almost insuperable, and this accounts for their number being so small. The longrange clubs in the Kingdom are:- The English Eight Club.

The Cambridge University L.R.R.C.

The Oxford University L.R.R.C.

The Hounslow L.R.R.C.

The Dublin Rifle Club.

The Irish Rifle Association.

The Ulster Rifle Association.

The National Rifle Club of Scotland.

The English Eight Club, the Irish Rifle Association, and the National Rifle Club Association of Scotland hold annual prize meetings for the purpose of aiding the captains of the teams for the Elcho Challenge for the general arming of the troops for service in the field, or similar rifle of private manufacture of bonâ fide Government pattern and bearing the Government Viewer's mark.

Foresight. Strictly in accordance with those issued with the particular pattern of Government Service Rifle the particular pattern of Government Service Rifle used by the competitor - Backsights. Either as issued on the particular pattern of rifle, or any of the backsights, including a vernier, rifle, or any of the backsights, including a vernier, ventometer, or aperture, with screw adjustments, as have received the sanction of the Bisley Committee, but no glass or lens of any description to be in the aperture.

Pull of Trigger-Minimum 5 lbs.

PARTICULARS OF BRITISH SMALL-BORE SERVICE RIFLES. 1892 Lee-Metford 303 7 215 دو دو Cordite 31½ grs. 2,060 feet per second 5 ... ... 215 303 5 215 303 5 175 Tubular cordite. 2 450,, 1895 Lee-Enfield ... 303 Short L.E.

Short L.E. 1907 1911 دو دو The Canadian service rifle, adopted in 1907, is the Ross, 303 calibre, having four cartridge (see p. 38, Fig. 1). grooves, and taking the British service When, in 1892, the British War Office, France, decided to adopt a following the example of Germany and service rifle, the first pattern issued was small-bore RIFLE SHOOTING] known as the Lee-Metford, from Mr. Lee, the inventor of the action, and Mr. Metford, the designer of the system of rifling used in the barrel. In 1895 the Metford was replaced by a barrel designed by Mr. John Rigby, Superintendent of the Government Small Arms Factory at Enfield, and this pattern of rifle, called the Lee-Enfield, was issued to the infantry and in carbine form to the cavalry. The War Office subsequently quently decided that one type of rifle should do for all the services, and the short Lee- Enfield was produced, declared by official experts to combine the handiness of the carbine with the shooting powers of the longer barrelled rifle. The Regulars are now armed with the short L.E., but the In 1910 the winning score was 798 (highest possible score, 840). Eight teams competed; the lowest score was 742, and the average of all, 768. All the teams used aperture back-sights, which form no portion of the British service rifle as issued.

The addition of an aperture back-sight was sanctioned by the N.R.A. in 1908 consequent on the decisive defeat of the British team by that of the United States in the International S.R. match for the Palma Trophy (fifteen shots per man at 800, 900, and 1,000 yards), held at Ottawa on September 7th, 1907. The United States team, using their Krag S.R. fitted with an aperture back-sight, made the record score of 1,712 points, an average of 214 per man.

GENERAL VIEW OF TARGETS. long rifle is still issued to the Auxiliary Forces, and is undoubtedly the better shooting weapon. Although much superior to the superseded Martini-Henry, the results at first given by the 303 at the long ranges were very disappointing, owing to the indifferent quality of the cartridges. The explosive, cordite, had been hastily chosen, without sufficiently exhaustive trials, and it was not until the introduction of modified cordite in 1905 that satisfactory shooting was obtained at the long ranges. A very good idea of the improvement in the shooting of the British service rifle during the last thirty-six years is obtained by comparing the winning scores made during that period in the Kolopore Cup, an important match shot annually at Bisley between teams representing the Mother Country and various Colonies and Dependencies.

Years.

Rifle. *577 Snider *450 Martini-Henry 1897-1907 II *303 L. M. & L. E. 303 Long L.E.

Average of the Winning Scores. 751 Open sights 775 Aperture sights [Photograph by Sport and General.

The British team, using Lee-Enfields and open sights, made 1,580, an average of 1971.

To place British representatives on an equality with those of other Powers in friendly contests with the rifle, the N.R.A. was compelled to sanction the aperture back-sight. The British War Office has so far refused to follow that lead, and appears content, should a contest of an unfriendly nature arise, that our soldiers should take part in it handicapped in this unequal manner. In the Olympic Games S.R. match, held at Bisley in 1908, the United States team was again successful, scoring 2,531, the British, this time using aperture back-sights, making 2,497.1 As riflemen became accustomed to the new sight, a general and substantial improvement in scoring took place. At Bisley, 1910, thirty-five full scores were made on a six-inch bull's-eye at 200 yards in the Graphic, forty-one on a twenty-inch bull at 600 yards in the Daily Telegraph, and no less than 122 on a figure target with in- 1 Conditions, six aside; 15 shots per man at 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10 hundred yards. At the last three ranges the United States total was 1,240, average 206. The British total, 1,215, average 202. visible bull at 500 yards in the Daily Graphic competition.

All records were passed by the first eight men in the King's Prize, Corporal Radice, of Oxford, the first to win the silver and gold medals in the same year, making 340 out of a possible 355, dropping fifteen points only in seventy-one shots at distances from 200 to 1,000 yards.

The following are the winning scores [RIFLE SHOOTING Prizes with 105, full score over all three shooting all round was of such a high order ranges, 200, 500, and 600 yards. The that the N.R.A. decided to reduce the divisions on all targets from 200 to 600 yards for 1911, a marked tribute to the increased accuracy obtained by the use of the aperture sight.

The exact advantage in points gained by the use of this sight is difficult to determine.

VIEW OF THE TARGETS, SHOWING METHOD OF WORKING. NOTICE THE NEW V-MARKER FOR INDICATING A CENTRAL BULL. made for the King's Prize at Bisley in the The bad shot has the largest margin for last three years :- 355 First Second Third Total.

Stage.

Stage.

Stage.

Ranges Highest 200 500 600 300 600 300 900 1,000 possible score. 35 35 35 50 50 50 50 50 1908.

Private G. Gray 1909. 32 34 33 48 48 47 44 39 325 Corp. H. G. Butt 32 32 33 48 48 44 46 40 324 1910.

Corp.

F. R. Radice 34 33 35 50 48 50 46 44 340 Two competitors, Sergeant-Major Wallingford and Captain McHarg, of Canada, made the highest possible score, 70, in the Prince of Wales's Prize at 300 and 600 yards, and Sergeant J. E. Martin, of Glasgow, won first in the Stock Exchange improvement, and gains most, the expert least. Bisley scores can scarcely be taken as a fair criterion, the men there being picked shots; but from club and county returns it would appear that the average all-round gain amounts to at least seven points over the King's first stage, 200, 500, and 600 yards.

An aperture back-sight tends to eliminate wild shots, removes the difficulties caused by changes of light, and relieves the eye from the strain of focussing back and front sights at the same time. Riflemen accustomed to its use will be very unwilling to go back to open sights and indifferent shooting. The decision of the N.R.A. to re-introduce at Bisley, 1911, for second class shots (exactly those to whom the aperture RIFLE SHOOTING] is of the greatest advantage), competitions in which open sights only will be permitted, is a retrograde step and quite out of keeping with the record of its Council. Aperture back-sights as permitted by the N.R.A. must be approved of by its Council prior to each Bisley meeting. They may be attached to the rifle by the same means only as one or other of the existing sights.

As an aperture should be nearer the eye than an open back-sight, this restriction has prevented inventors from turning out anything practical. The patterns of sights conforming to this regulation, although extremely ingenious, and advantageous when care can be taken in their use, are either too complicated or weak for field use. There is little doubt that, were inventors given a free hand, a serviceable sight would soon be produced.

Since the change from black to nitro powders, no more important improvement in small arm ammunition has taken place than the introduction of the pointed bullet.

Both the French and German Governments have adopted it for their service cartridges, and in this country the match rifle has proved its almost marvellous capabilities.

To obtain the best results with it, a more powerful cartridge than the Lee action can stand with safety, is however required.

The War Office desired the next change to be to an automatic rifle, and in August, 1909, issued the conditions required for such an arm; but as none satisfying these requirements have apparently been submitted, this policy has been altered, and a new magazine rifle, having a strong action, probably of the Mauser type, is now promised.

Pending the arrival of this rifle, a new pattern of ammunition for the 303, representing the best results permitted by the limitations of the Lee action, will be issued.

The Kings Norton Metal Co. has already supplied the Government with a large quantity, and it will presumably be available for Bisley, 1911. The charge consists of twenty-nine lengths of tubular cordite, the internal diameter of the tubes being 20th of an inch. The bullet weighs 175 grains, the point filled with a lighter metal than the rear portion. The muzzle velocity is 2,450 ft. per second, and the maximum rise over a range of 800 yards 8 feet 4 inches. 1 The new magazine rifle will probably have a calibre of 280, that being the maximum permitted in the conditions issued for the proposed automatic rifle.

The prone position is universally adopted for S.R. shooting at all distances. The back position, although permitted at 800 yards and over, is rarely used, owing to the difficulty of keeping the sights upright without the aid of a spirit level. In the prone position the shooter's body should point well to the right of the target aimed at, the legs stretched widely apart or crossed, as found conducive to steadiness. The body should be well braced up, the sling wound round the arm being a decided aid. The state of the stomach affects steady holding and materially influences the eye, a very important consideration when open sights are used. The arts of good holding and smooth trigger pulling can now be learned with the help of the Sub-Target Machine, an ingenious arrangement by which, with the aid of electricity, the exact spot at which the rifle is aimed, when the trigger is released, is registered by a pinprick on the diminutive target aimed at. Although costly, it is well worth its price, and no rifle club should be without one. The Cheylesmore rod, an inexpensive device for the same purpose, is useful for home practice.

Prior to the Boer War, the well-known bull's-eye type of stationary target was almost exclusively used both for practice and competition. 300 Yards. < 6f 2 6 8 12 600 Yards. 10 ft 36- 992 800 to 1,100 YARDS.

FULL CHARGE RIFLE COMPETITION "BULL'S-EYE" TARGETS.

Modern warfare has shown that the shooting required of the soldier is of a different order. Under conditions met with in the field, the object desired to be hit is seldom clearly defined or stationary, and the distances are not exactly known. S.R. targets have accordingly been altered to meet these conditions, a startling innovation having been introduced at Bisley in 1910, when all shooting at 500 yards was on a figure target with invisible scoring divisions.

The highest skill with the rifle consists in being able to shoot well at moving objects and under field conditions, but practice of this class is difficult to obtain, and competitions cannot be made too difficult without diminishing the number of entries. The figure target, although capable of improvement in design, is undoubtedly a move in the right direction, and, with a smaller 1 Spirit levels may be used with Match but not with Service Rifles. bull's-eye ring at 500 yards, will form a fine test of shooting. All shooting at 200 yards will in future also be on a target of the same design, but of reduced size. 12" 12. "FIGURE" TARGET. 21 12" " The top half of the target is grey, the bottom half green and the central figure brown. All rings are invisible to the firer. The Bisley programme further contains competitions at a Running, and at a Walking Man at 100; at a target appearing and disappearing at intervals of three seconds at 200; and at one at which all the shots have to be discharged within a limited time at 500 yards.

The following are the N.R.A. regulations (1911) for targets for full charge rifle competitions :- Divisions Dimensions of Targets. of Targets. 1st Class 2nd Class 800 to 1,100 500 & 600 yds. yds.

Bull's-Eye Inner...

Magpie 54,, Outer 72,, sq.

Rest 30,, 46 72,, 3rd Class.

Scoring. 200 yds. 300 yds. 36 in. dia. 18 in. dia. 8 in. dia. دو of Target 10 ft. x 6 ft. دو 46 " وو 17,, 26 48 دو دو وو دو دو 5 in. dia. 5 mks. 12 24,, 48 دو ور وو دو دو 4 3 2 وو وو The Ross Rifle. -The adoption in 1907 of the Ross 303 as the Canadian service rifle was naturally followed by its use being permitted by the N.R.A. at Bisley; and its performances in the hands of the Canadian teams and others have attracted considerable attention. The action is a strong one, built on the lines of the Mauser, but the bolt locks and unlocks with a straight pull. In 1909, with seven out of eight members of the team using this rifle, the Canadians won the Kolopore Cup, and in 1910 lost it by only two points to the Mother Country, the scores made by both teams, 798 and 796, beating all previous records. The amount of prize money won annually at Bisley by members of the Canadian team has doubled RIFLE SHOOTING since they have used the Ross rifle, and the question of its superiority to the Lee-Enfield has given rise to much discussion. Now that a new rifle is promised, interest in the Ross will increase, the action being strong enough to take a cartridge capable of obtaining the best results with the pointed bullet.

At the 1910 Bisley Meeting, Armoury- Sergeant J. E. Martin, the well-known Scotch shot, made the following remarkable shooting with a Ross Mark II. ** military rifle, fitted with the Martin B.S.A. aperture back-sight: 79 shots in competitions at distances from 200 to 600 yards, 74 bull's-eyes, 4 inners, I magpie. Included in this were no less than 6 full scores.

The Sporting Rifle. - Only those who have tried are aware how difficult it is to make a really close and central group of shots at 100 yards with a single sporting rifle; and how great a treasure a doublebarrelled one is, that will throw six or eight bullets consecutively into a 4-inch circle at that distance.

Few sportsmen in purchasing a rifle of this class appreciate the importance of testing the accuracy of the sighting themselves, and making certain that it suits their individual peculiarities, until the lesson is learned by bitter experience. However carefully tried by the manufacturer, it is quite possible that in other hands a rifle may, at 100 yards, throw 2 or 3 inches away from the point aimed at, an error which in the majority of cases means wounding an animal instead of dropping it.

The sporting rifle for Bisley Competitions may be :- Any single, double, or repeating rifle (whether of Government pattern or not) complying with the following conditions:- Calibre - Any.

Pull of Trigger-Minimum, 3 lbs.

Sights-Open sights, or such as have received the sanction of the Council or of the Bisley Committee.

The Lyman backsight of the usual pattern (being not more than three-eighths of an inch in diameter), and the Beach combination foresight have been sanctioned.

No lateral adjustment of fore or backsight will be permitted. The centres of both sights must be fixed over the centre of the barrel. If a platinum or other line is used on the backsight, only one such line is permitted. Spirit levels are allowed.

The target at 100 yards is a 12-inch disc, divided into inch rings. The bull's-eye is 3 inches in diameter, with a 2-inch central carton.

Up to 1896 all shooting had to be made either standing or sitting. The highest scores made under these conditions were:- Single Rifle-48 out of a possible 49 by Edward Ross, 1889; W. R. Joynt, 1895; Lieutenant Ranken and Mr.

Littledale, 1896.

Double Rifle-54 out of a possible 56 by Edward Ross, RIFLE SHOOTING] Since 1896 any position has been allowed, and the H.P.S. on the 2-inch carton has been made 13 times. Mr. Fenby made it in 1903, 1906, and 1907.

The Running Deer. The competitions held at the Running Deer Ranges at Bisley are amongst the most popular on the Common, and afford sportsmen excellent practice for the migration to the North later in the season. A small target with a 6-inch bull's-eye, coinciding with the position of the heart, is marked on the deer, which is painted throughout its natural colour. The original design for the figure of this deer was drawn by Landseer, and now hangs in the N.R.A. Museum at Bisley. To place six or eight consecutive shots within the inner ring as the deer runs first from one side and then from the other is no mean performance. At Wimbledon Earl de Grey was facile princeps in these competitions, and, at the present time, Major T. Ranken and Mr. Walter Winans usually fight out for premier honours. Both have made 23 out of a possible 24 (six runs of the deer) with the single rifle, and 28 out of 32 with the double.

C LEESON RUNNING DEER COMPETITION. -Four double shots by Mr. Walter Winans. Score: 43, 43, 44, 42=28. When made it stood as a record, but Major Ranken has since made an equal score, which, however, counts higher on the principle that the finishing shot of the series had a higher value.

RUNNING DEER. -Six runs, single shots. Score: 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4-23. Major T. Ranken.

In single-rifle competitions the Männlicher has, since its introduction, completely swept the board. The high velocity of the bullet renders only a small allowance in front necessary; and the closer it is possible to aim at the object, the better and more consistent will the results be.

Many deerstalkers now use the Männlicher in preference to the Express, and speak highly of its performances in the field.

The low trajectory, high velocity, greater accuracy and range, and small recoil amply compensate for any disadvantage in the weight and shock of the bullet.

A new sporting cartridge, giving a muzzle velocity of 3,130 feet per second, has just been brought out by the Ross Co. for its '280 rifle; this promises to displace the Männlicher, for the same reasons that the latter did the Express. (See Vol. I., p. 91, DEERSTALKING.) Miniature. Miniature rifle shooting has come into popular favour with a rush, and it is to be hoped it has come to stay. Already upwards of 5,000 clubs have been established in the British Isles for this class of shooting, and the number is steadily increasing. Of these some 1,700 are affiliated to the N.R.A., which has wisely supported the movement by every means in its power.

All these clubs form the finest training and recruiting ground for full-charge rifle shooting, and their success proves how popular the latter would be were its cost reduced.

Miniature rifles are divided into two classes: Military rifles, which must have sights of military pattern, or as approved of by the Council of the N.R.A. for the S.R.; and Any rifles. The bore may not exceed 230 of an inch, 220 being the general favourite. Ranges extend from 25 to 200 yards, but as most of the shooting takes place under cover, the shortest distance is chiefly used. The targets at the short distances are divided into ten rings, counting 1 to 10, the two central ones constituting the bull's-eye being black. A figure target with invisible rings is also used, chiefly for competitions with a time-limit.

Inter-club Empire matches have become a feature of this class of shooting. In 1907 Lord Meath gave a trophy for teams of schoolboys representing the Mother Country and the various Possessions beyond the seas.

In 1909 the Daily Mail gave a Challenge Cup open to all Miniature Rifle clubs through the Empire. Over 400 entries were received for the first competition, the winners being the Lincoln Church House Club, with a total of 1,923 out of a possible 2,000. Colonel Shumacher, of the Witwatersrand Rifles, has presented, through the N.R.A., two trophies, with £250 added, for a senior and a junior competition in 1911, open to clubs throughout the Empire.1 The first international match with miniature rifles was held at Bisley in 1908 in connection with the Olympic Games, the dis- 1 Conditions of these matches may be obtained from the Secretary, N. R. A., Bisley Camp, Brookwood.

RIFLE SHOOTING tances being 50 and 100 yards. The fol- figures; the Chancellor's Plate, Oxford and lowing were the scores:- The United Kingdom, Winners. Highest Possible Score, 800. 50 yds. 100 yds.

Total.

M. K. Matthews ... 98 H. R. Humby 98 196 ... ... 97 E. Pimm 97 194 99 F. J. Amoore 93 192 93 96 189 Cambridge Universities; the Rajah of Kolapore's Cup, Mother Country and Colonies; the Ashburton Shield, Public Schools, and the China Cup, inter-county match. Open to all the services, United Service Challenge Cup, and the Mackinnon Cup, British Isles and Colonies-Long Ranges.

PARTICULARS OF THE INDIVIDUAL COMPETITIONS OPEN TO ALL-COMERS. 771 Sweden, 737; France, 710.

The National Rifle Association and the Bisley Meeting. -No account of target shooting would be complete without some particulars concerning the National Rifle Association of Great Britain and its great annual Prize Meeting. The latter, held until 1889 at Wimbledon, and since that date at Bisley, is the most important of its kind in the world. Commencing on the second Monday in July, it lasts a fortnight, and regularly attracts not only well-known shots from all parts of the kingdom, but contingents from several of the Colonies. The roll of members numbers some 3,000, and upwards of 2,000 competitors stay in camp under canvas or in bungalows for the meeting, whilst the train service brings large additions every morning from London and Aldershot.

As will be seen from the following summary, a large number of the individual competitions are open to all comers. COMPETITIONS HELD AT THE BISLEY MEETING.

Total No. Ditto, open Rifle used. of Competitions. to Allcomers.

Total Team Matches.

Ditto, open to Allcomers.

Match R. ... 15 15 2 I Service R. ... 68 29 37 Sporting R. 6 6 Miniature ... 9 8 2 Revolver ... 18 18 3 I The prizes annually offered in these competitions amount to over £12,000 in cash, the value of the Challenge Cups and Plate being at least as much again, and upwards of £3,000 additional is distributed as the results of pool shooting.

The principal team competitions are:- With the Match Rifle: The Elcho Challenge Shield, between teams representing England, Ireland, and Scotland; the Humphry Cup, Oxford v. Cambridge.

With the Service Rifle (limited to Territorials): The Belgian Challenge Cup for volley firing; the Lloyd Lindsay mounted competition; the Mullins, firing at moving M.R. The Albert... وو دو وو دو Distances.

No. of Prizes.

Amount of Prizes. .. 900, 1,000, 1,100 20 £116 The Bass 1,000, I, 100 20 £60 The Edge 900, 1,000, 1,100 Halford Memorial 15 £50 1,000, 1,100 15 The Kings Norton £50 1,100, 1,200 17 £250 200, 600 325 £1000 500 150 £350 & Cup 200 130 £350 & Cup 600 130 £350 & Cup ...

S.R. Alexandra Graphic Daily Graphic Daily Telegraph دو دو دو the King's, 400 prizes amounting to £2,220, The most important and richest prize lists, and the St. George's, 235 prizes amounting torials. to £900, are only open to efficient Terricompetitions and the regulations govern- Full information of the foregoing ing them will be found in the Programme published every June by the National Rifle Association, Bisley, Brookwood. (Price Is.) The latest books on rifle shooting are The Theory and Practice of Rifle Shooting, A. G. Foulkes. (Horace Cox, IOS. 6d.) Notes on the Rifle, the Hon. F. F.

Freemantle. (Vincent, 5s.) Text-book of Small Arms (1909). (Harrison and Sons, 2s. 6d.) W. R. LANE JOYNT. a ROACH. - MEASUREMENTS, &C.- 'Length of head 5 to 53, of caudal fin 54 to 51, height of body 3 to 4½ in the total length. Eyes--situated very slightly above the centre of the height of the head, the diameter of each 31 to 4 times in the length of the head, I to 14 diameters from the end of the snout, and ½ apart. Body somewhat elevated and compressed. Mouth anterior, the jaws of nearly equal length, and the cleft of the mouth maxilla reaches to beneath the posterior cleft of the mouth a little oblique; the nostril.

Teeth-pharyngeal teeth in single row of 5 or 66 or 5 (only 4 are said to be present in some examples), in some the left side has one more than the right. They are somewhat hooked and pointed at their extremities, but become ground down with age. Fins-dorsal, commences midway between the end of the snout and the base of the caudal fin, its height anteriorly being one-fifth more than the length of its base. Pectoral as long as a ROEDEER] the head, excluding the snout. Ventrals inserted on a vertical line beneath the first ray of the dorsal fin; they are slightly longer than the pectorals, but do not reach to the anal, the length of the anterior rays of which latter fin are a little longer than the extent of its base. Caudal deeply lobed, the length of the central rays being about two-fifths of that of the longest outer one. Scales-4 rows between the lateral line and the base of the ventral fin; about 17 rows anterior to the base of the dorsal fin. The abdominal edge, between the base of the [Photo. by W. B. and S. C. Johnson.

ROACH. ventral and the insertion of the anal, somewhat compressed, but not sharp. Lateral line-slightly concave anteriorly above the base of the ventral fin, and situated between the middle and lower third of the depth of the body. Pseudobranchiæ moderately developed. Colours—superiorly bluish or greenish, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. Lower fins reddish-yellow, in some localities red; dorsal and caudal dusky, with blackish outer margins. (Day's Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. ii., p. 176.) [See also ANGLING, COARSE FISH.] ROEDEER (Capreolus caprea). -Probably derived from ancient Celtic, Ro. Colour. Summer, red-brown (in the sunlight a bright red); winter, general appearance brown, the tints of the under parts being yellowish grey.

The young at first are reddish-brown with white spots, but attain a coat similar to that of the adults during the first winter.

Distribution. The common roe is indigenous to England and Scotland, but not to Ireland, where, however, it has recently been introduced with great success in Sligo by Sir Henry Gore Booth.

In England a few are still left in Cumberland and Northumberland, and the species is flourishing in the Blackmore Vale in Dorsetshire, where it was reintroduced at Milton Abbey at the beginning of this century. There are also now from 15 to 20 head in Epping Forest-the result of a recent introduction (1884)-as well as a few in the New Forest in Hampshire. The species became extinct in Wales in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.

In Scotland they are to be found in every suitable locality north of the Clyde and Forth. South of those rivers they were reintroduced also at the beginning of the century, and have greatly increased, especially in the Western counties. The range of the common roe, on the Continent, extends southward to Italy, westward to Spain, northward to Southern Sweden, and eastward as far as Persia. In Russia it is found in the region of the Caucasus. Going further north and east its place is taken by the closely allied "pygargus," whose range I have ascertained to extend as far south as the Volga. This latter is a larger and more heavily coated animal with much finer antlers, and ranges east as far as Vladivostock, whilst another species, the Chinese roe, very similar to our own, but redder in coat, is found throughout Manchuria and Northern China.

Habits. The roe, during the winter months, is essentially a wood-loving animal.

There it dwells in small family parties, consisting generally of an old male and female and the two calves of the year. Sometimes two family parties go about together, but as spring comes on these break up, and, if open ground is near at hand, they wander far afield. This is especially noticeable in the case of the old bucks.

Unless the weather in summer is excessively hot, roe feed at regular intervals, from early morning till dark. In open ground it is a common thing to see a roe rise from the shade of a bush, feed for an hour (covering during that time a very small space of ground), and then suddenly plump down behind another bush and lie for another hour. I have seen roe do this during an entire day from dawn until dark, without moving a distance of more than twenty yards in any direction.

Fawns are born generally about the 25th of May, and two are usually produced at a birth. At the beginning of July roe are seen to have paired; but it is not before the second week of August that the rut actually takes place. At this season the male utters a loud hoarse bark, whilst the female makes an amorous cry when wishing to attract his attention. Then, too, the males fight, though it is a rare thing to see them do so.

During five seasons, in which I spent the months of July and August principally roestalking in the Highlands, twice only did I see them actually come to blows, although I watched them most of the early morning and evening, and in places where there were many bucks barking and on the move. have seen them have quite amicable sparring matches, with the doe belonging to one of them feeding close by. However, when they really mean business they fight desperately, both at this season and in the spring, when their horns are just clean.

One of the puzzles of natural history is the extraordinary fact that, although the pairing season takes place in August, and the young are not produced till the following May, yet the period of gestation is only five months. A partial explanation of this, demonstrated by Prof. Bischoff, of Goesen, is that the ovum lies dormant until the middle of December, after which it develops in the ordinary manner. as The summer coat is cast in September and the winter coat in May. The latter is of that wonderfully thick yet light nature which we notice in the hair of the pronghorn antelope and the klipspringer-a marvellous provision of nature which enables them to stand both heat and cold.

If roe are undisturbed, they will keep to the same woods for centuries. They do not seem to sour ground to the same extent as do red or fallow deer, and the playing grounds of this species at Cawdor, which have been protected for ages, are interesting as exhibiting the habits of these wild creatures. It is curious that this interesting habit has not been noted in this country elsewhere, nor on the Continent. The commencement of "rings" I have seen elsewhere, but on no estate properly formed circles.

The roe in these Cawdor woods have formed rings in which they play at dawn.

To these they resort every morning and chase each other round and round-a veritable fairy ring. 66 Shooting. There are two ways of killing roe in this country-namely, by driving them to the shot-gun in the winter, and stalking them in June, July, and August with the rifle. Between these two methods there is no comparison, for, unless the former is conducted scientifically, it is not to be named in the same breath with the latter. There are many excellent open land" roe grounds in Scotland where the owners or tenants, principally from the fact that they are not on the spot when the stalking is at its best, or have a larger quarry to pursue, generally neglect the chase of the roe-buck with the rifle for what is often a very inferior sport in the true sense of the term. If some of these who are really fond of the chase would turn their attention to stalking the roe-buck for a season or two instead of allowing the unfortunate does and young ones to be wounded and [ROEDEER slaughtered, as is too often the case, by the keepers and farmers at a later date, they would find the roe in time not only well worth the trouble of pursuing, but in many points quite the rival of the better-horned stag, and but little inferior to that animal in point of cunning.

The great charm of roe-stalking is that it can be followed at a time of year when there is little going on except fishing; and from that sport it forms a pleasant change.

The devotee, however, must be a genuine sportsman, for it is absolutely essential to be up and out on your ground before daybreak.

Make for some point commanding a view of the hillside; sit there and take a good by of all the ground in your vicinity as soon as it is light.

To be a good spyer is almost the most important thing in roe-stalking, as they are very difficult to see unless the sun is shining on them. They just move from the shadow of one bush to the shadow of another, and are seldom in sight for long unless you have a perfectly bare hillside, which is not often the case; moreover, they are not large.

If a good buck is found in absolutely open ground, he is not so difficult to get a shot at as a stag, but should he be in broken ground, scattered with rocks, clumps of firs and birch trees, you will find it sometimes extremely difficult to approach the quarry without being heard or seen. The chase then begins to assume all the difficulties of wood-stalking, which, as every sportsman knows, is about three times as complicated as open ground work. The crack of a twig, or even the sound of your passage through deep heather, is quickly detected by a roe - whilst the slightest sign of movement is observed more quickly by him than by a stag; and he does not stop to gaze and give you the same chance that the larger animal does. It is a shot at once, with perhaps but a small mark to aim at, and, if he has been stalked before, you probably will not get even that. Still-should this be the casethere is no need to feel disappointed. Notice the line he has taken, go back to your spying point, smoke your pipe, and in an hour or two it is not at all unlikely that he will be back again in exactly the same place.

If he does not return to that bit of ground, go and spy another likely place; but do not move about from wood to wood and hill to hill as you would if looking for red deer - but spy, spy continually where you have once seen a good buck, and sooner or later your patience is sure to be rewarded.

When an old roe-buck has been repeatedly stalked, he becomes more cunning than any hill stag. Sometimes these sharp old ROEDEER] fellows get right out into the open deer forest, where they become a most emphatic nuisance.

At the season of roe-stalking it is often nearly as important to find the doe as the buck, for the latter is sure to be close at hand, and, if he has not been shot at previously, he will soon come out into the open and feed near her, or perhaps disclose his whereabouts by barking.

In Germany and Hungary, where the chase of the roe with the rifle has been followed for centuries, a call, exactly, resembling the amorous cry of the female, is much used. Immediately the buck hears this, he puts his neck out straight and comes full tilt in the direction of the sound.

Usually he apprehends danger when within twenty or thirty paces, whereupon he stands for an instant, just time for a bounds on. for a shot, or straight Each has his individual taste as regards rifles; personally, I used to prefer a 400 single Fraser express; but now nothing to my mind is better than the 256 lutely still when roe are being "moved," for that is the proper term. The little deer, as they come forward, see the posted guns in nine cases out of ten before they have themselves been seen, and that is why those with the line of beaters will always get the largest number of shots. The best bucks, that is to say if they have not moved off at once, nearly always detect danger as soon as the drive commences, and they lie, ready to break back when the line comes up to them.

Excellent sport can be had with a couple of spaniels or a slow-going hound that will not press the buck too much. The dog follows the roe, who goes quietly along his favourite passes, and a shot can generally be thus obtained by any one who knows the ground.

This sport is well described by Colquhoun, who used fox-hounds with success; but almost any small dog that is not too fast will do.

ROEDEER.

Männlicher with Fraser's patent cartridges. The hole in the nose o. the bullet should be slightly deeper for roe.

The method usually employed in Scotland for shooting roe with a shot-gun leaves but few chances for individual woodcraft.

The shooter is placed in one of the passes frequented by the roe, and there he waits for the game to be driven to him like a rabbit or hare. This is literally roe-driving or forcing to a pass and seldom succeeds in bringing to bag aught save the does and the yearlings.

As a rule, the more noise, guns, and beaters there are employed in the chase, the fewer bucks or even does are killed. unless the game is entirely surrounded.

Two or three beaters and a couple of good guns will obtain better sport; and few people who shoot roe have any idea of how essential it is to keep out of sight and abso- VOL. IV Though roe may be killed at quite a distance with ordinary game cartridges, it is of course most unsportsmanlike to fire with these unless you are sure of killing them. The best size of shot to use is No. I or B.B., with 45 to 48 grains of Schultze, according to what you and your gun can stand. With a very first-class weapon you can use 48 grains with perfect comfort and safety; and this charge will kill a roebuck at a great distance with certainty.

Measurements and Weights. The roebuck stands about 26 inches at the shoulder, and is 48 inches in length from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail. At first sight it appears that the roe has no tail, but on close examination you will find that there is one about an inch in length.

Weights vary according to district. In woods bordering low ground bucks vary from 40 to 55 lb., but I have known a Scotch buck to reach 65 lb. In Scotland the animals attain their best within fifteen miles of Beauly, Perth, and Forres. Does E weigh from 30 to 42 lb. Roe are always weighed whole without gralloching.

In Germany the roe weigh as a rule 5 lb. heavier than ours, and in East Prussia, where they are at their best, some 10 lb. more.

Horns.-Average length in British Islands: 7 to 9 inches. I have measured three Scotch heads over II inches and one over 12. There is also one known Scotch head and one Irish of 12 points each. This is of course remarkable, as six is the usual number. In Austria a head of 15 inches has been recorded; but perhaps the most extraordinary example in German collections is that now in the Museum of Cassel. It is of fine shape and thickness, horns respectively 12 and 13 inches, and they carry no fewer than 16 good points. This head was obtained near Marburg in Hessen in January, 1588.

A good roe head is much more difficult to obtain than a good stag's head. There are several reasons for this, the principal being that the period of good horn growth in roe is very short, only lasting for a year or two, and also that the percentage of bucks which grow good heads is extremely small.

J. G. MILLAIS.

ROLLER SKATING. - See SKATING.

ROOK. As a subject of property the Rook (Corvus frugilegus), the most familiar of all the Corvida, holds a peculiar and unsatisfactory position. Unlike other animals feræ naturæ, it is unprotected by any statute, and at the mercy of every one who would compass its life. The law, in fact, has always regarded these birds, not only as unfit for human food, but as destructive in their habits, and therefore to be destroyed. So far from assisting in their preservation, as many would do nowadays by seeking to establish rookeries, our ancestors made laws for their total extermination. In the year 1533 a statute was passed, the title whereof is "An Act to destroy Choughs, Crows, and Rooks." This statute, accordingly, enacted measures for the extirpation of rooks, old and young, by the inhabitants of every parish, and set a price upon their heads.

By a later statute of Elizabeth, passed in 1566, provision was made for raising money in every parish for the destruction of these "noyful fowl." As these statutes, however obsolete, do not seem to have been repealed, the rook still remains in the eye of the law a trespasser and an outlaw, except in SO far as provisions of the "Wild ROEDEER [ Birds Protection Acts" may have modified this view. Under these statutes, the shooting or taking of any wild birds (which include rooks) between March Ist and August Ist is a punishable offence, and the taking of their eggs may be made so by an order of a Secretary of State. The rook is therefore so far protected by the legislature.

Opinions in regard to its utility have changed with the times, and the rook is proved to be, instead of an enemy to crops, a useful ally in extirpating the larvæ of destructive insects, weeds, and field mice, although it must be admitted that in the egging season game preservers have just cause for complaint against the rook for harrying the nests of pheasants, partridges, and wild ducks.

At the present day many persons, instead of devising means for getting rid of the rooks, takes measures for the formation of rookeries, and only shoot some of the birds for the purpose of keeping their numbers within proper limits, as well as to derive recreation from the exercise of their own skill with gun or rifle, and to provide ،، rook-pies," which, in spite of ancient prejudice, are reckoned by many to be extremely palatable.¹ Formation of a Rookery. Those who have paid much attention to the habits of rooks are aware that these birds are extremely eccentric and wayward in the choice of a nesting site. They display some judgment in the choice of sound trees, and evince a preference for those in the neighbourhood of old houses, seldom selecting trees in proximity to new buildings. It is difficult to induce them to take up their abode in any trees save those of their own selection; but one or two expedients may be mentioned which, by experiment, have been proved to be successful.

An instance in point is the rookery which formerly existed in the Elms in the King's Bench Walk. Mr. Everest informed the present writer in April, 1876, that, by the directions of Sir William Northey, "a bough was cut from a tree with a nest containing two young rooks, and taken in an open wagon from Epsom to the Temple, and fixed to a tree in the gardens. The old birds followed their young and fed them.

They remained and bred there. The following year a magpie was observed to build in the gardens. Her eggs were changed for those of a rook, and were hatched there." His example has since been imitated with success, and that in recent times, by Mr. Walsh, a gentleman resident 1 Only the young birds, of course, are eaten, and these should be skinned and steeped in milk for some time before being placed in the pie.

ROOK] in Essex, as related by the late Dr. Bree of Colchester. A branch, holding a nest which contained young rooks, was carried two miles to a spot where it was desired to establish a rookery, and fastened to a tree. In this case the parent rook did not follow the young, but one of the latter, being eventually tamed, paired with a wild rook.

A nest was built, a brood reared, and from this pair (wrote Dr. Bree) a large rookery descended, and became so numerous that the owner (Mr. Walsh) was compelled to destroy a great number annually. shooting season. By ascertaining the particular cause of desertion, and taking measures to remedy it, the rooks may be induced to return to the trees they have forsaken, or a new colony may take the place of an old one, should the trees be sound. (See The Zoologist, 1876, p. 4,926.) Destruction of a Rookery. Some persons object to having rooks too near the house, not only on account of the noise they make, but because of the injury to shrubs and plants beneath the nesting trees, caused by the droppings of the birds. There + + A ROOKERY.

The establishment of a rookery, by placing artificial nests in elm trees, and putting down food and water for the wild rooks has been successfully carried out by other experimenters. (See The Field, March 23rd, 1895.) Desertion of a Rookery. It sometimes happens that for some reason not apparent at the time, rooks will desert their rookery.

This may arise from various causes, (I) expulsion by herons, as in the well-known case at Dallam Tower, Westmorland, (2) expulsion by carrion crows, which plunder the nests, and should never be tolerated in the neighbourhood of a rookery, (3) death or material decay of the trees in which the nests are placed, rendering the topmost branches unsafe, and (4) from too many birds being killed in the rookare various ways of getting rid of them. They may be shot at repeatedly during the time they are engaged in repairing their nests, and so be frightened away; or a tree may be felled so as to fall across the principal cluster of nests; or again, a fire of green wood may be lighted in such a position to windward of the rookery as to cause the smoke to blow through the nests.

Those, however, who are desirous to get rid of an old-established rookery, with all its pleasant associations, are probably but a small minority amongst lovers of country sights and sounds.

Rook Shooting. - Whether the object be to reduce the number of birds, or merely to provide amusement by making living targets for small-bore rifles, rook-shooting with many people affords an agreeable E2 occupation at a time of year when no other kind of shooting is defensible.

Rooks build usually in tall trees, although instances are on record of their nesting occasionally in laurels and holly. (See The Zoologist, 1896, p. 258.) The height at ROOK SHOOTING. which they commonly fly and perch makes the shooting of them with a small-bore rifle sufficiently difficult, and a test of skill. No longer ago than the first quarter of the present century it was the fashion to practice rook-shooting with the cross-bow, and even with bow and arrow. Jackson's patent steel cross-bow, and a bow made by Bragg of Holborn were then in some repute for this form of sport. The latter weapon is figured in Blaine's Encyclopædia of Rural [ROOK Sports, and the Rev. W. B. Daniel has printed directions for the use of the crossbow for rook-shooting. (Rural Sports, vol. iii., p. 381.) The air-gun, though troublesome to load, was at one time a favourite weapon for rook-shooting, being comparatively noiseless and without recoil, and the present writer can well remember killing several rooks with an air-gun at an old country-house in Somerset in 1868. All these weapons have naturally given way to the use of the shot-gun and small-bore rifle. Farmers who are invited to enjoy a day's rook-shooting naturally bring with them the guns which they are ordinarily accustomed to use, but in these days of improved precision in firearms, and skill in shooting flying game, no one would think of aspiring to reputation as a rook-shooter unless the birds were killed with a bullet.

Of rook-rifles there are several patterns, those of Messrs. Holland and Holland being amongst the most perfect of their kind.

J. E. HARTING. i ROUNDERS. - This game is played upon a ground in the shape of a more or less regular pentagon, the "bases" at the angles being from 15 to 20 yards apart.

In the centre of the ground the server stands to toss the ball to the one who has the bat, and who stands opposite to him.

Two sides are chosen, one of which goes in to bat, the other out to field, this being decided by tossing. There should not be less than ten, nor more than thirty players in all. One of the "in side" takes the bat -which is often a cricket stump-while the feeder, who is one of the outs, tosses (not throws) the ball towards the player, calling out "play." One of the "outs" stands behind the batter and returns the ball to the server. The rest of the out party are distributed over the field round the outside of the pentagon. When the ball is served, the batsman's object is to hit it as far as possible, but if the ball is caught before reaching the ground, he is out. He is allowed either one trial or three; if all are failures, he is out. If he hits or tips the ball, he must run to the next base, and as much farther as he can reach without being hit by the fieldsmen with the ball, but if he is hit between any two points he is out.

The score is made by the "in" party as follows: Each player, after striking the ball, runs from his base to another or to a second, third, or more, or all round, according to the distance he had driven the ball, and scores one for each complete circuit. If "lost ball" be cried by the "out" party - ROWING] from the ball not being recoverable easily or by going over bounds-only four can be scored. After one of the "in" party has hit the ball and dropped the bat, another takes his place, and the rule applicable to the first player holds good for each in turn.

If the striker hits the ball, he must run to No. 2, the one who preceded him if there -moving on to 3 and so on. Any player of the "ins" whilst running, on being hit by the ball before reaching a base, is out.

The feeder is allowed to feign a toss of the ball, in the hope of touching some one of the players, who may be induced to leave his base or point before the hit.

When only one of the "in" side is left in, he may call for "three fair hits for the rounder." He obtains another innings for his side if he can hit the ball sufficiently far to allow him to complete the circuit of the pentagon; but if he fail in his three attempts, he and his party are finally out, and the other side go in. As a rule, this chance is allowed once only, but this may be altered by mutual consent at the begin ning of the game. The "field" is arranged much as at cricket-some near for slight tips, and the others well out, so as to be able to throw back to the "feeder " quickly as possible. Any one of the fieldsmen may put the runner out by hitting him with the ball before he reaches a base. [See also BASEBALL.] F. T. POLLOK. as ROWING. A more correct title for this article would be "Boat-racing," for there are branches of pleasure rowing with which it does not profess to deal. I would still further limit it to "Boat-racing on the river," for I cannot profess to have any knowledge of sea-rowing.

Historical. The early history of boatracing on the Thames is almost entirely lost. We know that, before the beginning of this century, all passenger traffic on the river in the neighbourhood of London was carried on by means of watermen's wherries: there were very few bridges, and consequently there were many watermen with their boats ready to remedy the deficiency. From a very early date these watermen must have had races amongst themselves: the earliest record of such races dates from 1715, when Mr. Thomas Doggett, an actor, instituted a race for young watermen who had just served their apprenticeship; the prize was a livery and badge. The names of the winners before 1791 have not been preserved in their entirety, but since that date the record is complete. Somewhere about this same date, 1791, boat-racing amongst amateurs must have begun; at least, at this date there must have been some amateur rowing in the neighbourhood of London, as we find that very early in the nineteenth century rowing was fully recognised as a form of sport, both at Eton and Westminster, and in London.

The list of captains of the boats at Eton dates from 1812, which points to the existence en of unorganised rowing for some years before this date. The Leander Club is referred to, in 1825, as an old-established club, and we know that before it there existed clubs called the Star and the Arrow.

In 1822 we know that bumping races were going on at Oxford-Christ Church was head of the river, and there was a dispute between Jesus and Brasenose. The first record of races at Cambridge dates from 1826. How long before these respective dates boat-racing was carried on in an unorganised condition it is impossible to say. In 1829 the Cambridge University Boat Club was formed, and in February of that year the secretary was instructed to take steps towards a match with Oxford. The result was the first University Boat Race, rowed on June 10th, 1829, at Henley, and this seems to have been followed by various matches between the head boats of the river at each University: there is no record of these matches, but there is oral tradition, which is borne out by the recorded match between Queen's College, Oxford, and St.

John's College, Cambridge, in 1837 (won by Queen's), and by the fact that in 1839 Henley Regatta was founded. The good citizens of Henley saw that there was a demand which they could meet by establishing a Regatta. In this same year, 1839, the Oxford University Boat Club was formed, and the third University Boat Race was rowed (the second was in 1836).

Before leaving the early days of boatracing, it is well to notice that the first Eton and Westminster match was rowed in 1829. the second in 1831, the third in 1836, and the fourth in 1837. The schools found it easier than the Universities to make arrangements for a friendly trial of skill. For many years after the establishment of Henley Regatta, competition there was mainly confined to the Universities, and the different colleges of the Universities.

There were occasional entries from King's College, London, Leander Club, St. George's Club, Thames Club, the Argonauts, Royal Chester, down to 1857, when the London Rowing Club made its first appearance and established a third great factor at the Regatta.

The year before this, 1856, is also a landmark in the history of rowing, with which the names of Littledale and Mat Taylor must always be connected. Mr. Littledale was a gentleman of Liverpool, a member of the Royal Chester Rowing Club: he commissioned Mat Taylor, a ship's carpenter, to build an eight-oared boat for his club crew to use at Henley. The result was the first keel-less, smooth-skinned light ship, in which Royal Chester easily won the Grand Challenge Cup, their first and only victory in this event. Boat building was revolutionised: the invention of outriggers by Clasper in 1845 had made the boats of the period much faster than formerly, but had [ROWING the Universities on the tideway, annual competition between the amateurs of the two Universities and of London at Henley, with other competitors either from at home or abroad occasionally intervening. Nor were the interests of the watermen, the professional oarsmen, forgotten: in 1843 a regatta was instituted on the tideway at which they were invited to compete for substantial money prizes, and in most subsequent years a similar regatta has been held. There have been gaps in the sequence of these regattas: there were [Photograph by Sport and General HENLEY REGATTA: GENERAL VIEW OF THE FINAL OF THE GRAND CHALLENGE CUP. not necessitated the learning of a new style of rowing. These new boats of Mat Taylor required more skill to keep them balanced, and a new style in order to get the best pace out of them. It is from this year that the modern school of rowing dates; the method that was correct then is correct now, with such slight modifications as have been introduced by the sliding seat. Sculling was equally affected with rowing.

There is still another thing that marks this year 1856 as very important in the history of boat racing: it is that from this year the University match becomes annual one. Thus 1857 finds the rowing world in practically the same condition as it is to-day; annual competition between an none in the years 1851-53, 1867 (though in this year there was a regatta at Paris in which several of our professionals took part), 1879-89 (though for two or three years in the middle of the 'eighties the Messrs. Chinnery gave a prize for scullers), or 1896. From some of these regattas, however, there have sprung several interesting matches, and some few good men have come to light who would otherwise have had no opportunity of showing their merits.

The invention of sliding-seats, which came into general use at Henley Regatta of 1872, is another step in the development of modern oarsmanship, but it introduced no radical change of style, only a slight modification.

Π ROWING] Foreign Oarsmen. It is impossible in such a short sketch of the history of rowing to give a detailed account of the foreign competitors who have tried to wrest our laurels from us on the river. The first visitor from abroad was an Australian, Green by name, who was beaten by Chambers in a match for the championship in 1863; the first amateur crew to visit England was a Harvard University Four, which challenged, and was defeated by, an Oxford University Four in 1869. In 1876 the Australian, Trickett, won the championship, and no Englishman has yet been able to regain the title.

In 1872 E. Smith, New York, U.S.A., THE TATE LIBRARY, BRIXTON, S.W.

But this one stroke in rowing consists of many separate actions, carried out by different sets of muscles, which must harmonise together, and run into each other, so that the whole appears to be one smooth and easy action. Any failure in one of the points leads to a derangement of the whole, and also tends to the acquisition of some bad habit in the individual oarsman which can ca never be altogether lost.

I propose first to describe what the stroke ought to be, and the more usual faults in performing it, and then, in the light of that knowledge, to consider what methods the beginner ought to adopt in order to acquire the art of rowing.

VICTORIA R.C., BERLIN. WINNERS OF THE SILVER GOBLETS, 1903. entered for the Diamonds, but was beaten in the third heat. Since that date there have been many foreign competitors at Henley. The following list gives a complete record of foreign successes :- Year.

Competitor. 1878 Columbia College, U.S.A. 1892 J. J. K. Ooms, Neptunus R.C., Amsterdam 1895 Aerens B.C.. Amsterdam University 1897 E H. Ten Eyck 1903 L. Klaus and A. Ehrenberg, Victoria R.C., Berlin 1904 L. F. Scholes. Toronto R.C. 1906 Club Nautique de Gand, Belgium 1907 Sport Nautique de Gand Belgium 1909 Royal Club Nautique de Gand, Belgium. 1910 Winnipeg R.C., Canada Event.

Visitors'.

Diamonds.

Thames.

Diamonds.

Goblets.

Diamonds.

Grand.

Grand.

Grand.

Stewards'.

Oarsmanship. If it were not for the fact that oarsmen of the very first class are extremely rare, it would appear that the art of rowing ought not to be a difficult one to acquire: there is only the one stroke to learn, and when that is learned it only has to be constantly repeated, now at a faster, and now at a slower rate: there are not the same difficulties as there are, for instance, at cricket, where the beginner has to learn a number of different strokes, and where he has to deal with circumstances which are constantly changing.

The Stroke.- [Note. In rowing phraseology, "forward," when applied to an individual in a boat, means the direction in which he is looking; when applied to a boat, means the direction in which it is pointing. It is easy from the context to see which is meant.] For the purpose of description I divide the stroke into five main headings, (i) the swing forward, (ii) the beginning, (iii) the swing back, (iv) the finish, (v) the recovery, and I select, to begin my description, that point when, after the stroke has been rowed in the water, and the arms straightened in the recovery, the body has begun to swing up and forward from the almost recumbent position which it had assumed. Observe that though two of the headings are named respectively the "beginning" and the "finish," there is no dead point at either place; the motions that lead into the beginning are "continuous"; the "finish" is merged into the recovery. (i) The swing forward. The body must be swung forward from the hips with a perfectly easy and regular motion, the spinal column as straight as possible, the stomach and chest well forward, the shoulders braced back in their natural position, the wrists flat, with the oar-blade feathered. As soon as the body has passed the perpendicular the slide is started; from that moment the feet must feel the stretcher and so balance and regulate the slide with the swing, that as the swing forward comes to its full extent, the slide will just touch the front stop. Nearing the end of the swing forward, the feet feel the stretcher a little more firmly, the oar is turned sharply off the feather, and, as the swing forward stops, all weight is taken off the handle of the oar, and the blade is allowed to drop into the water to its full depth. (ii) The beginning. At that moment, without the loss of a thousandth part of a second, the whole weight of the body is thrown on to the handle of the oar from the hips, the feet pressing very strongly on the stretcher, the slide not moving until the weight of the body is firmly established, but immediately following it. The whole power of the oarsman must be applied at this point. (iii) The swing back. Then, by flattening down the knees with a very firm and even pressure on the stretcher, the swing back is so combined with the slide that as the swing comes to its extreme point back, so does the slide arrive at its back stop, the oar-blade having been carried through the water without wavering, without any relaxation or increase of pressure. (iv) The finish. - During the last part of the swing back, after the body has passed the perpendicular, the arms begin to be bent by use of the muscles behind the shoulders, the elbows kept close past the ribs, so that as the swing and the slide end, so do the hands touch the chest. (v) The recovery. At once the oarblade is disengaged from the water by a sharp drop of the forearm from the elbow, followed immediately by a sharp drop and push away of the wrists, which turns the blade on to the feather and straightens the arms. These three motions must be SO smooth and so merged into each other that they appear to be one motion. Directly the body has ceased to swing back, it begins to swing forward again.

This brings us back to the point from which we started, and completes the cycle of the stroke.

Now let us take these different parts, or rather headings, of the stroke a little more in detail, inquiring into the reason of the described actions, and the causes of the more common faults in carrying them out. (i) The swing forward. The body must be swung forward from the hips with a perfectly easy and regular motion. - This, with the described position of the spinal column, chest, and shoulders is fairly ob- [ROWING vious. A rigid bar swinging from one end will obviously have a longer swing, and its free end will swing through a bigger arc than will result if a bar of the same length has one end fixed and a hinge put somewhere down it. An additional reason for preserving the described position is that it enables the oarsman to give his lungs free play at a time when his muscles are doing comparatively nothing, when he is taking his holiday, and gathering himself for the effort of the next stroke in the water.

It is, however, not unusual to find two different faults of body position during the swing forward. One is using as the pivot on which to base the swing, not the hip bones, but one of the vertebræ of the spine; the other is to let the body swing across the boat towards the oar, as the end of the swing forward is neared. The first fault is usually acquired in the early stages of rowing, and is caused by the beginner sitting on his tail bone instead of more fairly on those other bones which nature has plentifully supplied with padding. The second fault is one into which the oarsman insensibly falls; it is frequently found in No. 7 in an eight and No. 3 of a four. It it to be cured by keeping the eyes fixed on the inside shoulder of the man in front, and by feeling the stretcher with the inside foot a little more firmly during the last part of the swing. or The wrists flat, with the oar-blade feathered. The blade is feathered, turned parallel with the water, because in this position it only offers its edge as a resistance to any wind or waves. When the blade is in this position, with the arms straight, the wrists must be as low compared with the knuckles of the fist as possible, so that when the oar is turned square by raising the wrists above the knuckles, the arch of the wrists is not so great as to cramp their free play. The oar-handle must not be gripped in the fist, but held firmly in the fingers, with the thumbs coming round underneath. The hold of the inside hand must never shift; in the outside hand the handle may be allowed to turn a little.

As soon as the body has passed the perpendicular the slide is started. The function of the slide is to enable the swing of the body to cover a greater distance, and to bring into use those strong muscles of the legs which were not properly exploited on fixed seats. Hence the slide is the servant of the swing, and must be used in conjunction with it. The swing and slide forward must be even and balanced. Personally I prefer to see the body swing well past the perpendicular before the slide moves, as this gives greater steadiness and ROWING] balance to the swing forward. It tends to keeping the feet more firmly on the stretcher, and the stretcher is the bed of the spring into which the body is now transforming itself. The slide must not touch the front stop before the body has finished swinging; if it does, the balance of the swing forward upon the feet and stretcher is destroyed, and the oarsman is rendered incapable of getting hold of the beginning with the necessary quickness. This is a very common fault; it is often possible to hear the slide hit the front stop hard, and to see the oarsman's body tumble forward rather common fault is what is known as skying the feather." I cannot call to remembrance any occurrence of this fault when the blade has been kept on the feather; it occurs only when the blade has been turned square early in the swing forward. In my experience, it is an absolute cure for a skied blade to keep the blade on the feather until there is danger of the loom of the oar 66 locking" in the rowlock.

As the swing forward stops, all weight is taken off the handle of the oar and the blade is allowed to drop into the water to its full depth. - Theoretically, the body must never tow ROYAL CLUB NAUTIQUE DE GAND, BELGIUM. instead of swinging steadily; this can only be cured by letting the body swing well past the perpendicular before the slide is allowed to move, and, directly the slide does begin to move, by feeling the pressure of the feet on the stretcher; when once the slide begins, there must be no more pulling at the straps of the stretcher.

Nearing the end of the swing forward, the oar is turned sharply off the feather. - The oar ought to be kept "on the feather" as long as possible, for two reasons, first, because in this position it offers less resist ance; and second, because the merging of the rise of the wrists, which turns the blade square, into the rise of the hands, which allows the blade to drop into the water (which is very difficult to get with the necessary quickness and freedom), tends to make the latter motion quicker and freer. A stop swinging; directly it ceases to swing forward it must begin to swing back.

Practically, there is a pause, a dead point, at the end of the swing forward and at the end of the swing back, but these pauses inust be made as short as possible. It is during these pauses that, on the one occasion the blade is dropped into the water, on the other it is disengaged from the water. The blade must be dropped into the water, because it is the easiest and quickest method of getting it there, and because the balance of the oar is such that it will of itself immerse the blade to exactly the right depth. Many oarsmen, in trying to cover the blade quickly, fall into the error of jerking up the handle of the oar; the mere fact of employing force (where it is not wanted) causes a tension of the muscles and a slight pause as that tension takes place. Hence, though the motion of the blade into the water may be quicker, yet there will have been a slight delay in starting it, and the blade will be covered more deeply than is necessary, and, further, this unnecessary effort will have to be checked before the oarsman can bring all his power to bear on the "beginning." (ii) The beginning. -Now that the oarsman has swung forward to his full extent and is ready to begin his stroke in the water, it is very important to remember, and always to bear in mind, that what the oar does in the water is the only thing that gives pace to a boat, and is the only test of an oarsman's value; the only importance of all that I have been discussing up to this point [ROWING molecules of water begin to move away in front of the blade, and when the power is fully applied it necessarily does not meet with so much resistance, as the water is moving away from it. Consequently the oarsman devotes much of his power to merely moving the water in front of his blade, instead of lifting the boat past it. If, on the other hand, the beginning is gripped at once with full power, the molecules of water are at rest, and the lever is of the greatest effect as far as the stability of the fulcrum is concerned.

The greatest mechanical advantage of the lever is undoubtedly obtained when the oar is at right angles to the boat; but the instability of the fulcrum, which results if the GOOD ROWING. is to enable a man to apply the whole of his strength to the best advantage when his blade is covered. This sounds, and is, a truism. But it is very necessary to emphasise it; many coaches and many of their pupils entirely lose sight of this important point while endeavouring to cure particular faults of style.

The beginning must be caught with full power (it is a grip rather than a catch, certainly not a snatch), and for the following reason:- The oar is a lever of the second order; the oarsman, of course, supplies the power at the oar-handle; the weight to be moved is at the rowlock; the fulcrum is the blade covered in the water. But this fulcrum is not stable; it gives to the pressure. The broader the blade, the more stable the fulcrum; but the discussion of this point will come more appropriately with the discussion of dimensions. If, when the blade is first covered, the power is applied gradually, the Lambeth Public Libraries 66 full power is only applied at that moment, leads to a greater loss of power than the mechanical disadvantage of the beginning." Further, the more stable fulcrum enables a slower stroke to be rowed, since the same power, acting through the same space, will take longer to travel through that space when it meets with a firm resistance than when it has less resistance to overcome. The pause which an oarsman frequently makes before letting his blade drop into the water is called a "hang"; it is a bad fault. not only because it makes the keeping of time more difficult for a member of a crew, but also because it invariably causes the beginning to be missed. The chief causes of hang are as follows: a hurry of the swing forward, which brings the oarsman to the end of his reach before the rest of the crew, for whom he has to wait; finish of the slide forward before the swing, which upsets the balance of the oarsman on his stretcher, ROWING] which must be regained before he can begin his stroke in the water; and a faulty hold of the handle of the oar in the fists instead of the fingers, which stiffens the wrists and arms, and makes their action slow. It very often happens that a man who is trying his hardest to grip the beginning sharply and firmly will defeat his own object, because he makes an effort at this point, and in this effort grips his oar-handle too tightly.

The beginning is often made less effective, even when there is no hang, by the blade being brought.towards the water in a slanting direction, instead of being covered up to its full depth when the oarsman is at his full reach forward. There is no object valuable time must be lost in re-bracing the shoulders before the blade is put into the water (the more common result, another form of "hang"), or, the blade being covered, full power is not applied until the shoulders are in position again.

It has been said above that the beginning must be gripped by throwing the whole weight of the body from the hips on the oar-handle, the feet pressing strongly on the stretcher, but the slide not moving until the weight of the body is firmly established, but immediately following it. This requires explanation. Every man, in addition to the power which his muscular development gives him, has a body which weighs something, and by the proper use of that bodily COACHING AT PUTNEY. whatever in a long swing, unless that swing is used effectively, unless the blade is covered up all the time that the body is swinging back; if the blade is rowed through the air at the beginning (or at the finish) there is so much swing completely wasted.

Another fault which makes the beginning less effective is over-reaching with the shoulders, i.e., when the body is full forward, the muscles of the shoulders are relaxed and the arms are allowed to move forward in the sockets of the shoulders out of their natural position. The idea is to increase the reach forward; but it leads to two bad results: (i) the extra weight of the arms is thrown upon the handle of the oar, its balance is disturbed, and it becomes impossible to cover the blade at the correct moment; and (ii) the shoulders are in the worst position for withstanding the strain which has immediately to come upon them.

One of two things must follow: either 66 دو weight he can add appreciably to the power of his muscles. Dr. Warre, in his "Notes on the Stroke," puts this very concisely:

Strength misapplied soon evaporates; your weight is always in the boat with you.

Now, if the slide is allowed to move before the weight of the body is applied, it is impossible for the oarsman to make efficient use of his weight, and he consequently loses once and for all part of his effective power.

He can get a tremendously hard shove with his legs, but he has lost, or rather never acquired, a reserve of power on which he could rely when his muscular powers are failing him in a hard race.

It is by no means uncommon, however, to see a man slide on to his work instead of swinging on to it: with professional oarsmen it is the rule rather than the exception.

There follows the question, How soon ought the slide to move after the weight has been established? Modern practice gives the answer. As soon as possible. The two motions ought to be almost simultaneous.

At this point it is perhaps as well to observe that one of the most famous eights that ever rowed the Oxford University eight of 1878-as a crew swung their bodies up to, and even past, the perpendicular before allowing their slides to move. The pace of this crew was undoubted, and to this day it is quoted as being one of the finest examples of eight-oared rowing ever witnessed. There is this great example against modern practice. My reason for preferring the latter is derived from personal experience. When I went up to Oxford in the early 'eighties it was considered correct to swing past the perpendicular if possible before sliding, and in this school I was carefully instructed. But increasing experience and observation of other rowing men led me to favour an earlier use of the slide, since the old system induced a separation of swing from slide. Almost the whole swing came first, then came the action of the slide; the two were not used in combination. Certainly full use was made of the bodily weight, but the leg and back muscles were not properly used, especially at the beginning. This was seen at Cambridge before it was seen at Oxford; the run of Cambridge victories in 1886, 1887, 1888, and 1889—was mainly owing to their more correct use of the slide, but then the Oxford men learned their lesson from the enemy and turned the tables. 3 [ROWING greatest quantity of water or rows his blade through" the greatest distance, but he who does most to carry the boat past the spot where his blade was first covered.

If the beginning has been properly gripped, and the slide begun at the right time, the swing back and the stroke in the water are also properly carried out; they follow naturally, and the next difficulty only begins with the bending of the arms for the finish. (iv) The Finish. The finish is that part of the stroke in the water during which the arms, which must be regarded as mere attachments between the shoulders and the oar-handle, are bent to allow the oar to come home to the chest. While this coupling up of the attachments is going on, the pressure on the water must be still held on by the steady swing back of the body and extension of the slide; there must be no addition to, or substitution for, this pressure by any use of the biceps. All that is required from the muscles of the arms, and more particularly from those behind the shoulders, is to couple up the connections. But this is one of the most difficult points in rowing for an oarsman to get correctly; and most men even of good class fall into one of two errors: either they use their arms too much, or too little. If they use their arms too much, the body is pulled up to the handle of the oar (this fault is called "meeting the oar"), which involves a shortening of the swing, and consequently of the stroke in the water; the over-use of the arms, too, always disturbs the position of the oar in the water and makes the oarsman row his finish either 66 light" (i.e., with the blade more or less uncovered), or “deep” (i.e., with the blade too much covered). This last fault of finishing deep is caused by the extra strain on the arms, affecting the wrists and flattening their arch. This causes the blade to be slightly turned in the water, and by its mere change of position to run down deeper.

It must be remembered that as the arms are bending, the arch of the wrists must be gradually increasing. (iii) The swing back. It has been explained that the oar is a lever of the second order, and that the object of the oarsman is to lift the boat past the spot where his blade was covered in the water. Yet it is invariably assumed in rowing phraseology that the oarsman has to "row his blade through," a confusion of ideas which is owing to the fact that the water gives an unstable fulcrum and runs away in front of the pressure of the blade with increasing rapidity. It is owing to this, too, that though the same power be applied at the oar handle with unvarying pressure during the whole time that the blade is covered, yet the blade will appear to come through" with ever increasing rapidity.

And this fact has caused many good judges of rowing to advocate and teach a constant(v) The Recovery. - Faults of the finish a 66 increase of power after the beginning has once been gripped. I think they are wrong, and are misled by appearances. There is slip" of the oar in the water, the blade does come through," and it is only by watching what the blade of each individual oarsman does in the water that the coach can estimate the value of his work. It is very important to remember that the most valuable oarsman is not he who moves the If the arms are used too little, the grip of the blade in the water is relaxed, the hole in the water which it has made is filled up, and the whole finish is weakened. are very intimately connected with faults of the recovery, and more especially with the difficulty of disengaging the blade from the water at exactly the right time. Consider the position of a beginner when his arms begin to bend for the finish. He has been told to keep his blade fully covered until his hands touch his chest, but he knows full well that if he does this, and fails to disengage his oar exactly at the right time, the ROWING] oar-handle will hit his body with considerable violence, and he will catch a crab. The consequence is that he either shirks the difficulty by letting his blade get lighter and lighter as the hands come into the chest until, as the hands touch the chest, the blade is completely uncovered, or else, keeping the blade better covered, he makes a violent wrench with any muscles of his arms or shoulders; sometimes he even throws his body on the oar-handle, in order to get his blade out before it can do mischief. In either case bad habits are formed which it is almost impossible to cure.

A -the usual instruction at this point of the sharp with your hands in the stroke is recovery"; but the wrists play a far more important part in the recovery than do the hands. The excessive use of the arms in the finish cramps the wrists, and consequently makes the recovery slow and awkward. As the arms are being straightened in the recovery, just sufficient weight must be put on the handle of the oar to keep the blade balanced at the right height-two or three inches above the surface of the water.

The oarsman must feel as if he had nothing more to do with his oar until it is time to [Photograph by Sport and General.

TRIAL EIGHTS AT CAMBRIDGE. AFTER THE FINISH, DEAD BEAT. really good finish and recovery is hardly ever seen even amongst the very best and most finished oarsmen-they nearly all have some trick acquired in their early days which they have found impossible to cure.

And yet the disengagement of the oar from the water is a perfectly simple and easy matter-all that is required is a sharp drop of the hands and forearms working from the elbows as on a pivot; no other muscles should be allowed to come into play. This is the first motion of the recovery; then comes the drop of the wrists, which turns the oar on to the feather, followed immediately by the pushing away of the wrists, which straightens the arms. These are three separate and distinct motions, but the value of a good recovery lies in making them form one continuous motion. The use of the wrists is to be particularly noted G D turn it square and drop it into the water for the beginning-his arms during the swing forward must be quite straight, but not in the least stiff or rigid.

Directly the oar has been disengaged from the water, all pressure on the stretcher ceases, and the strain of the recovery of the body is eased by a slight pull with the feet on the straps of the stretcher. This comes only too naturally to the oarsman, and the pull on the straps is apt to be continued too long-it must cease directly the slide forward is started. Let me summarise as concisely as possible the most important points of the stroke.

The action of the blade in the water is the only factor that counts towards pacemaking.

The stroke in the water cannot be of full value unless the beginning is gripped with full power.

The beginning cannot be gripped unless the body is perfectly balanced when it is at the end of its swing forward.

How to Teach a Beginner. - The beginner should always take his first lessons on a fixed seat, because it will give him one thing less to think about, and also because it is only on a fixed seat that he can learn and appreciate the value of swing-of using his weight properly. It is important that his oar should be true in the rowlock, with unworn leather on the button, and that the rowing pin of the rowlock should be a little proud" rather than the reverse. When proud " rather than the reverse. When he gets into the boat, show him how to sit -exactly opposite to his feet, and with his body erect; before he takes an oar into his hands show him how to swing his body, and explain that all work must be done by body swing supported from the stretcher, that the stretcher is the point from which he must get all his power, and that he must not depend on the strength of his arms. Now let him take hold of his oar, and show him how to hold it in his fingers-with his thumbs underneath and round the handle; with the blade flat on the water, his wrists will be as low as is convenient-well below his knuckles. Explain to him that the grasp of the oar must not be shifted, so that, when the oar is turned square, the wrists, especially the inside one, will be well arched; the hands on the oar ought to be a handsbreadth apart. Let him turn his oar on and off the feather several times, until he understands the use of his wrists.

Now show him that if he lets his oar drop into the water with a square blade, letting go of the handle altogether, the balance of the oar will immerse the blade to the right depth, and explain to him that he must try to produce the same effect without letting go of his oar. Let him swing a little forward several times with straight arms and try this exercise, at first entirely letting go of his oar, and afterwards keeping hold of it.

Now show him how to disengage his oar from the water-by a simple drop of the forearm from the elbow-and explain to him the motions of the recovery which follow, and see that he performs them in proper sequence.

Up to this point all instruction can be carried on without the boat being moved from the landing stage or the bank; but now it is necessary to let the boat go, and to get your pupil to connect the putting of the blade into the water with its disengagement from the water. Do not at first let him exercise any pressure on the water or swing his body more than a very little; direct his [ROWING attention towards dropping his blade into the water quite evenly while his arms are the water properly, letting it float through bending, and the proper performance of the motions of the recovery. When he has got in a proper manner, let him swing a little some idea of performing all these motions more and exercise a little pressure on the for a few strokes, and direct his attention water; let him watch his blade occasionally towards bringing it through with a perfectly even motion, and without varying the depth to which it has been covered. It will take several days before he grasps all these details; until he has grasped them and has got into the habit of performing them with some approach to correctness, it is important that he should not be allowed to his muscles begin to acquire the habit of attempt to lay out his strength. But when performing the motions without constant commands and messages from the brain, occasionally to do more work and to swing his you can encourage him for a few strokes body more; this is the time to insist on the value of body swing and pressure on the stretcher; do not allow him to use his arms, and do not allow him to continue this extra pressure for more than ten strokes at the necessity of keeping his blade even and a time, but continue to impress upon him regular in the water when he increases the thing like his full power until he has got a pressure. Do not allow him to exert anyfair idea of how he ought to use his hands and wrists without making frequent mistakes.

When he has reached this stage, transfer body. Make him swing his body forward your attention and his to the use of his right down between his knees (watch that his knees keep rigid and that they neither close in nor fall further apart at any part of the stroke; they ought to be just wide enough down between his thighs). Then make him apart to allow his stomach to come well swing back well past the perpendicular, making his hips the pivot on which to swing.

When he begins to swing properly, transmake him think of keeping his feet firmly fer your attention more to his stretcher ; planted on the stretcher during his swing forward, and of using his stretcher sharply in conjunction with a sharp spring up of Now is the time to encourage him to exert the body in order to grip the beginning. all the pressure in the water that he can strokes when you ask him to lay out his command during those few occasional blade in the water, and it is always advisable strength, but you must keep an eye on his to let him, too, look at his blade for two or three strokes at a time.

To summarise. First teach your pupil ROWING] how to use his hands, wrists, and arms; then how to use his body; and lastly, how to use his legs.

When you put him on a slide, make him swing his body well before he slides forward, and, to begin with, make him swing his body up to the perpendicular before he slides back. Begin on a 5- or 6-inch slide.

Dimensions of Boat.-Any one wishing to have a racing boat built will go to a builder, give him the weights of the crew for which the boat is wanted, and leave him unfettered by instructions about length, width, or depth, or shape of hull. About other matters, such as the height of the seats above the heels, the length of slide, the distance of the rowing pin at right angles to the centre of the seat, and so cn, every one is not quite agreed, so that instructions may be necessary. As regards the measurement of eightoared boats, the following table, taken by the courtesy of Mr. T. A. Cook from his admirable little book "Racing at Henley." gives full details of the boats used by Harvard and Cambridge respectively in their match at Putney during the autumn of 1906. The English boat may be taken as typical of our usual craft in the first decade of the twentieth century :- HARVARD.

Centre-seated eight, with swivel rowlocks, by Davey, of Cambridge, Weight ...

Total length ...

Broadest beam Rowing space Coxswain space Stem to bow's seat Stern to cox.'s seat Beam at bow's seat Beam at cox.'s seat Camber Depth amidships Depth stem Depth stern Slide movement ...

Mass.

Average weight of crew Over all Inboard Blade HARVARD. 262 lbs. 60 ft. 1 I ft. II in. (behind five's seat) 34 ft. 6 in. 3 ft.

II ft. IO in.

IO ft. I in. 194 in. 17-in.

More than ours To in. 74 in. (22 in. from stem) 5 in. (stern post) 20% in. 12 st. 7 lb.

OARS. (By Shea, of Springfield, Mass.) 12 ft. 2 in. 3 ft. 8 in. 6 in. a CAMBRIDGE.

Stroke on bow side, fixed rowlocks, by Sims, of Putney. 2773 lbs. 63 ft.

I ft. 118 111. (four's front stop) 33 ft. 8 in. 2 ft. 8 in. 14 ft. 12 ft. 7 in. 205 in. 174 in.

Very slight. in. 62 in. 57 in. 16 in. 12 st. 6 lb.

CAMBRIDGE. (By Ayling, of Putney). 12 ft. 3 in. 3 ft. 8 in. 5 in.

For a lighter crew a boat of less length, breadth, and depth would suffice; but the capacity of a boat for carrying weight depends far more on the shape of the hull than on these actual dimensions. The dimensions of the boat built by Mat Taylor for Oxford University in 1857 were: length 54 feet, breadth 2 feet 2½ inches, and the average weight of the crew was a trifle over II st. 9 lb.

The greatest beam ought to come somewhere about No. 4 seat, or even a little further forward, and the floor ought to be carried well aft.

Measurements of a modern Four. Of a Pair.

Length over all Greatest breadth