Collectivism
a word of quite recent origin, intended to express the central idea in the economic theory of socialism, that industry should be carried on with a collective capital. It means that capital should not be owned and controlled by individuals, but by groups of associated workers; the joint property of the community. COLLEGES. Three forms of the institutions of the higher education are easily distinguished. The earliest was the private, or ecclesiastical. By this method a few citizens, usually members of a church, associated themselves for the purpose of securing a charter from the government of the State in which it was desired to establish a college. Under the public funds raised by taxation. Its government is vested in a board of regents or trustees, either appointed by the governor or elected by the people. At least 40 such universities are found in the United States.
In the government of each college or university are usually associated two bodies, the one called trustees, or directors, or overseers, or regents, or fellows, who represent the legal side of the corporation. The other is called the faculty, which is the body of instruction. These two bodies work in co-operation in carrying on the essential service of the institution. To the college, or to the undergraduate department of the university, students are admitted from the high school or the academy. The average age is 18,
The preparation consists in studies embodying English literature and plus. The direct preparation consists in either Latin or French or German and language, mathematics, solid geometry, occasionally Greek, pursued for four years; history, either ancient or modern, and an elementary knowledge of chemistry and physics. The students of the age of 18 enter college usually, though not always, with a direct purpose. To prepare themselves for a profession was formerly a primary purpose. It is now COLLEGES not the only purpose. The preparation for business, for engineering, for jour- nalism, for farming, has, however, in refor business, for engineering, for journalism, for farming, has, however, in recent years become an aim not unusual. The studies which are pursued on entering the four years' course are easily divided into the old humanities, the new humanities, and the sciences. The old humanities were primarily Latin and Greek. These have in recent decades, es- pecially Greek, become largely eliminated for modern linguistic studies. French or Spanish have been substituted. Formerly German held a large place. The new humanities include the English language and literature, history, economics, political science, sociology, philosophy, and psychology. The rise of the sciences in the last 70 years has been constantly reflected in the college curriculum. They have now assumed an important place as educational instruments. The chief subjects in this field studied in addition to jects in this field studied in addition to mathematics are physics, chemistry, biology, and geology. The principle on which these studies, are, first, in part prescribed and in part elective, are arranged for the student to promote the power of thinking, and, COLLEGES AMERICAN COLLEGES. - The history of American colleges may be divided into three periods the colonial college, the ican college. The colonial college ended old American college, and the new Amer- 1870 and is still in process of evolution. with the American Revolution; the new Before the Revolutionary War there American college begins about the year had been a continuous development of higher education in the colonies for 150 years. The point of beginning was the institutional life already familiar in the home beyond the seas. Harvard College, established by a bequest from John Harvard in 1638, was a combination of an English public school and Emmanuel College. It was founded as the "schoole and Dartmouth grew out of Dr. Wheelock's School for the Indians. Altogether 11 founded as a "collegiate s institutions of higher learning were founded before the Revolution. These School for the Indians. Altogether 11 sent happy and, in many relations, profold American college, and the new Amerschoole," and et after 25 years of labor was 315 pounds, no part of which sum came from endowment. After a century and a half founded before the Revolution. These et after 25 years of labor was 315 pounds, no part of which sum came from secondly, to develop the character of the endowment. After a century and a half individual. In the interpretation of the of history Harvard's total funds were purposes of the higher education such less than 17,000 pounds. William and purposes of the higher education such "Education seeks to train leaders in de mocracy," "Education endeavors to form the character as well as to discipline the mind," "Education is aimed to secure rational living," "Education is to help one to enjoy one's self," "Education is a preventive of evil and a promotion of the good," "Education is designed to develop the individual and to incorporate this individual into the whole community," "Education is a process of laying up capital, both intellectual and ethical," are constantly used. some brick edifice, 136 feet in length, Mary was the richest of our early colleges. Its main building was a handwhose architect was Sir Christopher Wren.
The avowed purpose of these earliest colleges was the training of leaders for the Christian ministry. One-half the graduates of Harvard for the first 100 years entered the ministry. After the Revolutionary War the field of their edu- cational service altered materially. Their task was to train leaders, not for the were task was to train leaders, not for the church alone, but for a new state, for a self in new callings, for a period of piocolleges neer development sweeping across the The old commercial life beginning to express itcontinent. strengthened and a number of new ones a direct responsibility in this work. The founded. The States began to assume University of North Carolina was chartered in 1795, Vermont in 1800, Georgia in 1801, and South Carolina in 1805.
Still progress was slow. Dexter estimates that in 1800 all existing colleges in the country had less than 2,000 students, hardly more than 100 professors, and $1,000,000 worth of property. "Education is a process of laying up capthe college and the university, is found a very vital undergraduate life. This life constantly used. In addition to the scholastic feature of the college and the university, is found a ternities-brotherhoods, organized for social purposes not a few of which are intercollegiate. Houses, either owned or leased, are the homes of these organizations. Next to them the highest place is occupied by athletic sports, including football, baseball, basketball, hockey, tennis, and many other sports. Dramatic tions. Next to them the highest place clubs, literary organizations, civic clubs, Young Men's Christian Associations, and Young Women's Christian Associations, daily and weekly papers, monthly magazines, parliamentary associations, repre- and Greek as fundamentals, to which During the period now under discussion all American colleges developed along similar lines. The course of study was rigidly prescribed, based on Latin COLLEGES COLLEGES were added English literature and rhet- fended in 1827 in a report made by the oric, mathematics, logic and philosophy, with a little history. After four years of work the degree of A. B. was given.
Between 1800 and 1870 8 new subjects were introduced into the admission requirements, viz., English grammar, English composition, algebra, geometry, geography, ancient history, United States his tory, and physical geography.
Within the last 50 years the American college has developed greatly along many lines. Some problems it has solved, many are still in process of solution. Its present status may be discussed under separate heads: 1. Material Resources: It is not easy to fix a definite standard of wealth as an essential condition of college organization. The Association of American Colleges has published a suggestive bulletin on "The Efficient College." The conclusion is that "an efficient college of 400 students should have a faculty of 40 teachers, total assets of about $3,000,000 and an annual income of about $125,000."
At present this standard is ideal. A few of our best colleges reach it, but they have usually more than 400 students.
The North Central College Association requires an endowment of $200,000 and this has been generally accepted by standardizing agencies as a minimum.
But the enforcement of even this moderate provision would forfeit the charters of a large proportion of the institutions calling themselves colleges. But it should be said that these feeble institutions with little or no endowment or source of income other than student fees are not examples of the modern American college. They are left-over examples of the old-fashioned or even of the colonial college. No modern college can escape the financial burden involved in well-filled library carefully administered. providing scientific laboratories, and a well-filled library From the standpoint of material resources we may recognize several distinct types of colleges. First, there is the small college with a faculty of 8 or 10, a student body of less than 200, and a limited election of work. Then there is the large college, still detached, with larger resources of every kind. Then there is the university college-a college still the center of a university that offers professional work of the most varied character. Apparently the student trend is toward these large institutions. 2. General Purpose: Long ago the college ceased to be vocational, as were the earliest institutions in America. The next rallying point was the call for intellectual discipline. This end and aim of the college course was elaborately de- Yale faculty. With this argument every college defended its rigid technical course of study. With the expansion of the curriculum, made necessary through the expansion of knowledge and made possible through the expansion of material resources, the college relaxed its claims for the supremacy of mental discipline and abandoned its rigid curriculum for securing the same. For discipline it substituted "culture," returning to the humanitarian ideas of the renais sance. This ideal of culture has been weakened by attacks from two sides. A report of the Harvard faculty in 1904 says: "The easiest way to induce students to take a subject for culture is to make it not too difficult." There has also been a demand that the college course relate itself to the life purposes of the students. This has been heeded, especially by colleges attached to large universities, so that the college course is again becoming vocational. 3. The Curriculum: Perhaps the greatest academic struggle of the past generation has been carried on over the college curriculum, the introduction of new subjects, the adherence to old requirements, the adoption of a system of free electives or parallel courses, the length of the course and the degrees that should crown it. The whole question is older than 1870. It was brought distinctly to the front in the founding of the University of Virginia in 1825. Harvard, under the leadership of President Eliot, was the center of the liberal influence.
Out of the confusion and strife there are some broad conclusions that may be stated: (a) The rigid college course is gone and will not be restored. (b) New subjects and new courses are introduced by every college to the extent of its financial ability, ability, and beyond. Limitations are financial alone, not of educational theory. (c) Free election is making little progress at present. A corrective is applied by some form of parallel courses or group studies or requirement of majors and minors. (d) Admission requirements become constantly more liberal with the ultimate goal that no student is to be rejected at least by the larger State universities-who has finished an acceptable high school course. (e) The typical course is to occupy four years, but some students will accomplish it in three and most professional students will have their first year credited as part of their college course. (f) The degree of A. B. will be the usual degree for any course. Some institutions will continue to give B. S., but other degrees, as B. L., or Ph. B., will be abandoned.
COLLÈGE DE FRANCE present American college. There has been a tremendous and not altogether depresent American college. There has been a tremendous and not altogether desirable growth of non-scholastic interests in college life. These interests attract students more than scholarship. As yet they have not been properly organized and vitalized with the spirit of culture.
Athletics, fraternities, and social life are From the foregoing it appears that no lum.
From the foregoing it appears that no definition of the term "college" has yet secured general acceptance. At the same time influences are working from many quarters looking to the establishment of possess. These are an endowment of at and educational, that every college must possess. These are an endowment of at least $200,000, or an annual income from taxes of $40,000, not less than eight departments, eac time professor, regular appropriations for laboratories and library, and satisfactory each having at least one fulllaboratories and library, and satisfactory salaries. Some States limit the granting of charters by some such provisions and educational societies have urged such limitation as a universal requirement.
The future of the American college has been much discussed. The college is threatened by the high school and junior college on the one side and by the university and professional schools on the other. None the less the American col- versity and professional schools on the lege even the detached cultural college -survives to-day and is being strength ened. It has no counterpart either in England or on the Continent of Europe.
It has inherited respect and affection accumulated through hundreds of years and in spite of many changes still remains in some respects our most typical and in spite of many changes still re- American educational institution.
COLLEGES FOR WOMEN and are found among women students fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa, was organized at William and Mary College, as well as men. in Virginia, in 1776. On account of the The first of these troubled state of the colony during the Revolutionary War, the original ch ceased to exist in 1781, but branches, or "chapters," as they are called, had already been established at Harvard and chapter Yale, and by these other branches were distinction in 50 different colleges. Of afterward organized. It still exists as Yale, and by these other branches were the general fraternities now in existence distinction in 50 different colleges. Of the chief society, indicating scholarly the first, the Kappa Alpha, was founded at Union College in 1825. There are the first, the Kappa Alpha, was founded women's college fraternities, the oldest being the Pi Beta Phi, founded at Monmouth in 1867. A number of journals being the Pi Beta Phi, founded at Monare published by are published by the societies, the oldest Pi," established in 1872. The oldest by the societies, the oldest established 1882, now known as the "Key." ed women's journal is the "Golden Key," COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK, an educational (non-sect.) inorganized in 1848; reported at the end of 1919: Professors and instructors, stitution in Manhattan Borough, N. Y.; of 1919: Professors and instructors, organized in 1848; reported at the end Mezes.
COLLEGES FOR WOMEN, institu- MEN tions of higher learning, designed to give of instruction and research as are afforded to men. They are of three types: women practically the same advantages independent or separate colleges; co-orfor men, and coeducational colleges. forded to men. They are of three types: of instruction and research as are afmore or less closely with an older college COLLÈGE DE FRANCE, a celebrated peculiar to the United States. The ear- I. Independent colleges for women of COLLÈGE DE FRANCE, a celebrated I. Independent colleges for women of the same grade as those for men are institution founded by Francis I., in Langues merely, is now a very important organized as a college in 1893. The first educational institution , giving instruc- charter for a collegiate institution foundois lege, opened as a seminary in 1837; retion over a very wide field of literature, ed only for women was granted Elmira history, and science. It is independent of the University of France, is directly under the Minister of Public Instruction, and is supported by the government. As itous. The College comprises two faculties, one literary, one scientific; each has about 20 professors. ulties, one literary, one scientific; each ties existing in American colleges which are named from the letters of the Greek alphabet and therefore commonly called are named from the letters of the Greek ties existing in American colleges which secret organizations only in their grips alphabet and therefore commonly called chiefly for literary and social purposes organized as a college in 1893. The first sar, ope ed only for women was granted Elmira charter for a collegiate institution found- 1885, opened in 1861; Smith, in 1875; 85, are ranked among the leading col. leges of the United States.
II. The affiliated colleges for women lege, at Columbia University, in 1889; are five: Radcliffe College, at Harvard Woman's College, of Brown University, University, opened in 1879; Barnard Colin 1892; College for Women, of Western University, opened in 1879; Barnard College, at Columbia University, in 1889; University, in 1886. In all these colleges Reserve University, in 1888; Sophie in 1892; College for Women, of Western Woman's College, of Brown University, tion are the sama og in COLLIER leges with which they are affiliated, and usually the instructors are the same.
III. The prevailing system of education in the United States for both men and women began in Oberlin College, in Ohio, founded in 1833, chartered as a college in 1850, built "for the education of both sexes and all colors." Antioch College, also in Ohio, followed in 1853, by admitting both men and women on equal terms. In 1900 every State university in the country, except those of Virginia, Georgia, and Louisiana, admitted women.
COLLIER the plates of an edition of Dickens' works. Purchasing a printing press, he began the publishing business which within a few years had become very successful. The firm of P. F. Collier & Son published and sold many millions of books, chiefly editions of standard authors, made in thors, made in inexpensive form. He founded in 1888 "Collier's Weekly." Mr.
Collier was well known as a sportsman and breeder of blooded horses. He died April 23, 1909.
Many professional schools and colleges have been opened to women in theology, City in 1876. law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, schools of technology and agriculture, and the number of women entering these professions is increasing rapidly.
In Europe the advance in this direction has been much slower. The first woman's college in Cambridge, England, was begun in in 1869. Now Oxford and Cambridge give large opportunities to women, but do not confer upon them their degrees. With these exceptions, all the greater English and Scotch universities and colleges in Great Britain and in her colonies give their degrees to women.